Foreign policy

what was the spanish armada

Spanish fleet sent by Philip II in 1588 to invade England and overthrow Elizabeth I.

english strengths

• Faster, more manoeuvrable ships.

• Better long-range guns.

• Effective leadership (Drake, Howard of Effingham).

• Fire ships at Calais broke Spanish formation.

Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis

1559

between Spain and France

How serious was Mary queen of scots 1569-87

Ridolfi

1571

A plot was made to replace Elizabeth with Mary she would be married to the duke of Norfolk this plot involved Norfolk, The pope and Mary and Philip II
It was discovered by Cecil- Cecil demanded Norfolks execution. Elizabeth hesitated signing the death warrant for Mary but did for Norfolk to placate the commons

Babington plot

1586

A letter allegedly by Mary - endorsed Babington’s plot to murder Elizabeth found out by Walsingham’s agents

The council pushed Elizabeth to sign the death warrant , Lord Howard warned Elizabeth her hesitiation was angering her councillors and subjects

Mary’s execution provoked an emotional outburst from Elizabeth she banished Cecil and in response to Philip II and Henry III she claimed she was not responsible for the death of Mary

Throckmorton

1583

France,Spain and the papal money (however they pull out of supporting)

Excommunicated

1570

transformed the religious landscape of England from a state of relative tolerance into one of active persecution and political suspicion

followed the Northern Rebellion of 1569

The 1571 Treason Act: Parliament passed legislation making it high treason to declare that Elizabeth was not the lawful Queen or to introduce or publish any Papal Bulls in England4....

• Stricter Penalties: The event spurred the government to view Catholicism as the "religion of the enemy," leading to the increase of recusancy fines to £20 in 1581 and the eventual execution of Jesuit priests as traitors from the 1580s

Why was Cecil concerned about Mary queen of Scots

• after the excommunication Elizabeth became a legitimate target for Catholics

Northern rebellion

It began as a court-based conspiracy to marry the Duke of Norfolk (the premier peer of England) to Mary Stuart to secure her position as heir, remove William Cecil, and restore Catholicism

At its peak, the rebel army consisted of approximately 3,800 foot soldiers and 1,600 horsemen, controlling much of the territory east of the Pennines10.

• Failure of Support: The rebellion failed to gain traction beyond the north; expected support from Catholic nobility in Lancashire and Cheshire was not forthcoming, and anticipated Spanish military aid never materialised

collapsed in December 1569 as the royal army moved north, causing the Earls to flee to Scotland712.

• Mass Executions: Elizabeth responded with severe repression, ordering the execution of 700 rebels, though reluctance from local officials and poor weather meant the actual number was likely closer to 45013.

• Administrative Reform: To break the feudal power of the northern families, the Council of the North was restored and placed under the leadership of the Puritan Earl of Huntingdon

Northern rebellion threat

major threat because it demonstrated that the 1559 Religious Settlement had not yet won the hearts of the northern population suggests it was a popular movement, as nine-tenths of the rebels were not actually tenants of the leading Earls The rebellion’s failure was largely due to poor planning, the lack of a coherent programme, and the Pope's delay in issuing the Bull of Excommunication until after the rising had been crushed

turning point in anglo-spanish relations

1567

Phillip sends an army under the Duke of Alva to the netherlands to restore spanish control

• to increase spanish control (where the antwerp cloth trade is)

Sea beggars

Elizabeth allowed the sea beggars to shelter in England in 1567 which they used as a base for attacking spanish ships

Seizing the bullion

seized the bullino from spanish ships sheltering in english ports in 1568

foreign policy 1572-1584

• this period is viewed as a decline in relations between England and Spain

• she wants the Netherlands to be granted traditional liberties

• She is keen for spain to maintain a loose control over the netherlands to subdue France’s power

• her fear of war and expenditure keeps her foreign policy reactive

Spanish concessions

Elizabeth continues to aid the dutch rebels allowing the english privateers to close the channel to Spanish ships

it works as it does not cause direct conflict with Spain but they are irritated to make concessions

Treaty of Nonsuch

The Treaty of Nonsuch (1585) was an agreement between Elizabeth I and the Dutch Protestant rebels against Spanish rule, marking England’s first official military involvement against Spain.

marked a decisive shift from cautious diplomacy to open confrontation with Spain, and while it failed to secure a decisive victory in the Netherlands, it was successful in preventing Spanish dominance of the Channel and safeguarding England’s security

expelling the spanish ambassador

1584

Treaty of Berwick

1586

a mutual defense pact signed between Protestant England (Elizabeth I) and Protestant Scotland (James VI) to counter threats from Catholic powers like Spain and France, formalizing a "league of amity" and providing James VI with English financial support, while indirectly isolating his Catholic mother, Mary, Queen of Scots, paving the way for her execution and strengthening Anglo-Scottish ties

Phillip growing power

by 1585 he was stronger than ever his army was defeating the dutch rebels in the netherlands he had acquired portugal with its navy and signed the secret treaty of Joinville with the french catholic guise league which left him free to turn against england without french intervention

By 1585 England and Spain were considered at war

How did Elizabeth navigate the competing threats of Catholic France and Spain

At the start of her reign, France was considered the primary threat due to the Auld Alliance and French control of Scotland through the regent Mary of Guise. To secure her northern border, Elizabeth secretly funded and eventually sent a fleet and army in 1560 to assist Protestant Scottish lords against the French. This resulted in the Treaty of Edinburgh (1560), which forced French withdrawal from Scotland and established a Protestant government there, effectively neutralising the French-Scottish link early in her reign. An attempt to intervene in France itself in 1562 to aid the Huguenots and recover Calais failed, leading to the Treaty of Troyes (1564), where Elizabeth effectively recognised the permanent loss of the city

Balancing Spain and France as a "Counterpoise"

Elizabeth’s long-term objective was to maintain a balance of power between Spain and France to ensure English security.

• Marriage Diplomacy: Elizabeth used her single status and marriage negotiations as a diplomatic bargaining tool to prevent her rivals from uniting against her.

• The Alençon/Anjou Courtship: In the late 1570s and early 1580s, she entered marriage negotiations with the French Duke of Anjou (formerly Alençon). This was intended to keep him under English influence while he led an army supporting Dutch rebels, preventing him from annexing the Netherlands for France while simultaneously irritating Spain.

• Strategic Sovereignty: Elizabeth preferred the Netherlands to remain under loose Spanish sovereignty rather than have them conquered by France, as French control of the southern Channel coastline was considered "unthinkable

The Treaty of Joinville

(1584): The formation of a secret alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic League finally forced Elizabeth into open war. She signed the Treaty of Nonsuch (1585), committing 7,000 English troops to the Netherlands, which effectively marked the beginning of the Anglo-Spanish War

national defence & dynastic security

Neutralising the "Auld Alliance": Early in her reign, Elizabeth successfully intervened in Scotland (1560) to assist Protestant lords against the French-backed regent, Mary of Guise. This led to the Treaty of Edinburgh, which forced French withdrawal and secured the northern border at a relatively low cost.

• The Removal of Mary, Queen of Scots: For nearly 20 years, Mary was a focal point for Catholic plots like the Ridolfi (1571) and Babington (1586) conspiracies. Elizabeth’s eventual decision to execute her in 1587 removed the internal Catholic figurehead, despite the queen's personal reluctance to execute an anointed sovereign.

• Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588): The sources describe this as Elizabeth’s "finest hour", where superior English gunnery, fire ships, and the "Protestant wind" defeated a massive invasion fleet. This victory preserved English independence and boosted the cult of Gloriana as a Protestant heroine.

• A Smooth Succession: Despite refusing to name an heir throughout her reign, Elizabeth’s policy ultimately resulted in the peaceful transition to James VI of Scotland in 1603. This successfully unified the crowns and ended the long-running threat of a Catholic successor

military intervention

Failure in the Netherlands (Leicester’s Campaign): Following the Treaty of Nonsuch (1585), Elizabeth sent 7,000 troops under the Earl of Leicester to support Dutch rebels. The sources judge this a failure due to ill-disciplined troops, desertions to the Spanish, and Leicester’s quarrels with the Dutch.

• The Financial Drain of War: The war with Spain (1585–1604) was "exceedingly frustrating" and financially ruinous, costing an estimated £4.5 million to £5 million. This created a massive debt passed to her successor and led to domestic unrest in the 1590s due to heavy taxation and monopolies.

• Strategic Indecision and the Counter-Armada: Elizabeth has been criticised for a "stingy" and "indecisive" habits, failing to press her advantage after 1588. The Drake-Norris expedition (1589) to Lisbon was a financial and psychological failure, resulting in 11,000 deaths and no strategic gain.

• The Conflict in Ireland: The Nine Years' War (1594–1603) against the Earl of Tyrone became a "wilderness" of expensive guerrilla warfare. While Lord Mountjoy eventually secured victory at Kinsale (1601), the campaign cost £2 million and devastated the Irish economy

trade expansion

• Harassment of the Spanish Monopoly: Elizabeth encouraged privateers like Francis Drake and John Hawkins to raid Spanish treasure ships and colonies. These raids provided a "tempting solution" to the crown's lack of resources, often yielding high returns on investment for the queen.

• Global Exploration: Drake’s circumnavigation (1577–1580) served both as a diplomatic challenge to Spain and a means of bringing back immense treasure. Elizabeth’s public knighting of Drake on the Golden Hind made her anti-Spanish allegiances clear to the world.

• Modernisation of the Navy: Under the guidance of John Hawkins, Elizabeth’s navy was reformed from a coastal defence force into a "high seas fleet" of manoeuvrable galleons with long-range guns. The sources note that English ships out-manoeuvred the bulky Spanish vessels during the Armada campaign.

• Expansion of Overseas Trade: To bypass Spanish-controlled ports, the government established new trading companies like the Levant Company (1581) and the East India Company (1600). This broadened England’s foreign policy vision beyond Europe and sowed the seeds for a future colonial empire

Spanish bullion

In November 1568, Spanish ships carrying approximately 400,000 florins—a loan from Genoese bankers intended to pay the Duke of Alva’s army in the Netherlands—sought refuge in English ports from pirates and storms. Encouraged by William Cecil, Elizabeth I ordered the bullion to be unloaded and impounded, arguing that since the money was a loan, it technically still belonged to the bankers and she was entitled to "borrow" it herself. This action was intended both to hamper Alva’s military efforts to crush Protestantism in the Netherlands and to serve as revenge for the Spanish attack on John Hawkins’ fleet at San Juan de Ulúa earlier that year

spanish response

Seizures and Embargoes: The Duke of Alva retaliated immediately by seizing all English ships and property in the Netherlands. King Philip II followed suit by doing the same in Spain.

• Cessation of Trade: These actions resulted in a total trade embargo, effectively stopping all commerce between England, Spain, and the Netherlands. This cessation was highly detrimental, as the Netherlands was England's primary export market for the cloth trade.

• Political Deterioration: The incident caused Philip II to shift his view of Elizabeth from that of a "minor irritant" to an "implacable enemy". It marked the beginning of a "Cold War" phase characterized by increasing hostility

why did england succeed in the spanish armada

A primary reason for the victory was the superior design of the English fleet; under the guidance of John Hawkins, English ships had been transformed into faster, lower-built, and more manoeuvrable galleons,,. In contrast, the Spanish vessels were taller and more awkward, designed primarily for trade routes and boarding tactics rather than tactical fighting in the Channel,. The English benefited from longer-range guns, which allowed them to harass the Spanish from a distance and avoid being boarded, a tactic the Spanish relied upon

wind

The weather was a decisive factor that finished what the English fleet had begun. Strong and unfavourable winds, often referred to as the "Protestant wind", prevented the Spanish from retreating through the Channel, forcing them on a hazardous route north around Scotland and Ireland,,. Many Spanish ships were wrecked on these rocky coasts due to fierce storms, resulting in the loss of more than half the fleet