Comprehensive Biology Key Concepts: Genetics, Evolution, Cell Structure, and Molecular Biology

What is Simple Dominance (Monohybrid Cross)?

A genetic cross between two individuals that examines the inheritance of a single trait, where one allele is dominant over the other.

What is Incomplete Dominance?

A form of inheritance where the phenotype of a heterozygote is intermediate between the phenotypes of the two homozygotes.

What are Multiple Alleles?

A situation in genetics where a gene has more than two alleles, such as the ABO blood group system in humans.

What are Homologous Structures?

Anatomical features in different species that share a common ancestry, though they may serve different functions.

What are Analogous Structures?

Body parts in different species that have similar functions but do not share a common evolutionary origin.

What are Vestigial Structures?

Body parts that have lost their original function through evolution, such as the human appendix.

What is Convergent Evolution?

The process where unrelated species evolve similar traits due to adapting to similar environments.

What is Divergent Evolution?

The process where two or more related species become more dissimilar over time, often due to different environmental pressures.

What is Gradualism?

The theory that evolution occurs slowly and steadily over long periods of time.

What is Punctuated Equilibrium?

The theory that evolution occurs in rapid bursts followed by long periods of stability.

What is Natural Selection?

The process by which individuals with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to evolutionary change.

What are the evidences of evolution?

Fossil records, comparative anatomy, molecular biology, biogeography, and embryology.

What are the mechanisms of evolution?

Natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow.

What are the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of a protein?

The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids; secondary structure includes alpha helices and beta sheets; tertiary structure is the overall 3D shape; quaternary structure is the arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains.

What is the R group of an amino acid?

The R group, or side chain, is the part of an amino acid that varies between different amino acids and determines its properties and function.

What is hydrogen bonding?

A weak attraction between a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an electronegative atom and another electronegative atom, occurring in water and between DNA strands.

What are the characteristics of carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are organic molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, typically with a 2:1 hydrogen to oxygen ratio, and serve as energy sources and structural components.

What are the characteristics of lipids?

Lipids are hydrophobic organic molecules that include fats, oils, and steroids, serving as energy storage, insulation, and components of cell membranes.

What is the structure of a steroid?

Steroids have a characteristic structure of four fused carbon rings and various functional groups attached.

What is the structure of DNA?

DNA is composed of nucleotides, which include a phosphate group, a sugar (deoxyribose), and a nitrogenous base; it has a double helix structure with complementary base pairing.

What is the difference between Potential and Kinetic Energy?

Potential energy is stored energy based on position or state, while kinetic energy is the energy of motion.

What is the difference between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells?

Prokaryotic cells are unicellular organisms without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and organelles.

What is the difference between Plant Cells and Animal Cells?

Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts for photosynthesis, and large central vacuoles, while animal cells do not have these structures.

What are Cell Organelles?

Cell organelles are specialized structures within a cell that perform distinct functions, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum.

What are Hypotonic, Hypertonic, and Isotonic Solutions?

Hypotonic solutions have a lower solute concentration than the cell, causing it to swell; hypertonic solutions have a higher solute concentration, causing it to shrink; isotonic solutions have equal solute concentration, maintaining cell size.

What is the Endosymbiotic Theory?

The theory that eukaryotic cells originated from a symbiotic relationship between different species of prokaryotes.

What is Transcription?

The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA, occurring in the nucleus, requiring RNA polymerase, and producing messenger RNA (mRNA).

What is Translation?

The process of synthesizing proteins from mRNA, occurring in the ribosome, requiring tRNA and ribosomal RNA, and producing a polypeptide chain.

What is the difference between Mitosis and Meiosis?

Mitosis is a process of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells, while meiosis is a specialized form of division that produces four genetically diverse gametes.