Fallacies & Biases Folder

Argument from ignorance

Argument from ignorance

a claim must be true (or false) if it hasn’t been fully rejected as false (or proven as true)

Fallacy of the single cause

an outcome is due to one cause when it may be due to multiple causes working together

Golden mean fallacy

the truth is the middle option between two opposites

Cherry picking

picking out the few belief-confirming cases and ignoring the mostly belief-contradicting cases

Argument from anecdote

anecdotes are used as the only evidence

hasty generalization

making a generalization based on insufficient evidence

Appeal to authority

Non-experts or perceived experts are used as evidence

moving the goalposts

Changing the amount/type of evidence needed to support a claim

Conservatism bias

Not revising your beliefs enough when presented with new evidence

Post hoc fallacy

When something appears to cause a later event because it occurred before the later event

Survivorship bias

Focusing on what has passed a selection process (survived), while ignoring what has not

Texas sharpshooter fallacy

In a set of data, ignoring differences and overemphasizing similarities, especially in subsets of the data

Recognition heuristic

 If I recognize one thing, but not the other, the one I recognize is better/true

Familiarity heuristic

If I recognize both things, but am more familiar with one, the one I am familiar with is better/true

Availability heuristic

 If I can more easily remember examples of something, then it must be more important or happen more often

Affect heuristic

Specific emotions will guide my reasoning

False consensus effect

Thinking more people agree with you than the number that actually do

von Restorff effect

Distinct, different things are remembered more

Extension neglect/base rate fallacy

Sample size is ignored when it should be considered  

Availability cascade

Collective beliefs seem more possible/true if repeated

Truthiness

Viewing something as true based on intuition and not evidence

Illusory truth effect

Considering something as true after repeated exposure

Apophenia

Tendency to perceive meaningful patterns and connections between unrelated things

illusory correlation

Perceiving a correlation/ relationship between variables when there is no relationship

Pareidolia

Perceiving a meaningful image in an ambiguous visual stimulus

Mere exposure effect

Liking things more if they have been encountered more

Conformity

Aligning your beliefs and behaviors with others or a specific group

Sunk cost fallacy

the tendency to continue investing in a decision, project, or relationship based on the resources (time, money, effort) already spent, rather than on whether the current investment is likely to yield a positive outcome

ex: Imagine you've spent $200 on tickets for a concert, but on the day of the event, you feel sick. Even though you'd rather stay home, you might feel compelled to go because you don't want the $200 to "go to waste."

Appeal to tradition

Something is true because it fits with traditional/long-standing practices and beliefs

Divine Fallacy

Something must be true because it is too incredible to be false

“I cannot imagine how that ghost sighting can be false, so it must be true!”

Representativeness heuristic

Making categorical judgments about a given person or target based on how closely the exemplar matches the typical or average member of the category

Anchoring bias

When we rely too much on the first piece of information we get (the "anchor") and don't adjust our thinking enough even after getting new information.

• For example, if someone tells you a car costs $30,000, that number sticks in your mind as a reference. Even if you find out later that similar cars cost only $25,000, you might still think of $30,000 as a fair price, because the first number you heard has a strong influence on your judgment.

Negative agency bias

Negative outcomes lead us to assume an agent purposefully caused it

Barnum effect

General predictions and personal descriptions tend to be perceived as more specific and personal than they are

"You have a strong desire for others to like and admire you, yet you can be critical of yourself. You have a lot of potential that you haven’t used to your advantage. At times, you may feel insecure about your future."

This description is broad enough to apply to most people, but many might feel it describes them specifically

Egocentricity

Tendency to emphasize our own needs, concerns, and outcomes over those of others

Authority bias

Tendency to believe and be influenced by authority figures, regardless of topic

autokinetic effect

Illusion of seeing a static spot of light moving in a dark room or illusion of movement in a still object

contrast effect

Perception of an intensified difference between two stimuli or sensations when they are juxtaposed or when one immediately follows the other