approaches

unconscious

the part of the mind containing mental processes that are inaccessible to the conscious awareness yet continue to exert an influence on thoughts, feelings and behaviour 

ID

one of the three components of the personality acc. to psychodynamic approach

• operates according to “pleasure principle”

• primitive part of personality - present at birth

• made up of conscious drive + instincts such as aggressive thoughts

• is selfish and demands instant gratification

Superego

one of the three components of the personality acc. to psychodynamic approach

• morality principle

• it is our internalised sense of right and wrong

• punishes ego for doing wrong through guilt

• the superego opposes and battles the desires of the ID

Ego

one of the three components of the personality acc. to psychodynamic approach

• develops around the age of 2

• works on the reality principle

• acts as a mediator bet. ID and Superego

• the role is to reduce the conflict (and associated anxiety) bet. the demands of ID + Superego

• does this by employing defence mechanisms

Psychodynamic Approach assumptions

• unconscious processes of which we are unaware, determine our behaviour 

• the personality (psyche) has a distinct structure of three parts ( ID, Ego, Superego)

• the unconscious conflicts in the personality are mediated by processes called defence mechanisms 

• personality is constructed by the passage through psychosexual stages of development 

role of preconscious  

• includes thoughts and ideas which we may become aware during dreams or slips of the tongue called parapraxes 

role of conscious 

the part of our mind that we are aware of - merely the tip of the iceberg

role of unconscious

• contains threatening/disturbing memories that have been repressed ( put to the back of our mind) or locked away and forgotten due to defence mechanisms

• protects the conscious self from anxiety/fear/trauma/conflict

defence mechanisms

• unconscious strategies employed by the ego to reduce anxiety caused by the ID-Superego conflicts

• are called ego-defence mechanisms - as anxiety weakens the influence of the ego- but it needs to be strong to mediate bet the id  + superego

• are considered helpful - as they prevent the ego becoming overwhelmed by trauma and threats 

• 3 types of defence mechanisms

name the 3  defence mechanisms

• repression

• denial 

• displacement 

repression 

forcing a distressing memory from the conscious mind

denial

refusing to believe something because it’s too painful to acknowledge the reality

displacement

transferring feelings from the source of distressing emotion on a substitute target

psychosexual stages : the importance of early childhood experiences

• Psychodynamic theory states that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality

• Events that occur in childhood can remain in the unconscious, and cause problems as adults

• Freud proposed that all children go through the same five stages of development.

Psychosexual Development

• Freud claimed that child development occurred in five stages.

• Each stage, apart from latency is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage.

• Any conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage through adult life.

• Fixation may occur due to trauma, pleasant or unpleasant experiences, change in environment etc

what are the 5 stages of the psychosexual development

The 5 stages are:

– the oral stage: 0-1 year of age

– the anal stage: 1-3 years of age

– the phallic stage: 3-5/6 years of age

– the latent stage: 6-11 years of age

– the genital stage: 12+ years of age

oral stage (0-1 years)

• mouth is the focus of sensation and pleasurable experiences

• focus of desire= mother’s breast (feeding)

• freud suggested that an individual come become fixated in this stage if they were under/over fed as a baby

• fixation at this stage could lead to: smoking, nail biting, eating and drinking

anal stage (1-3 years)

• organ of pleasure = anus ( derives pleasure from expelling or withholding faeces)

• in this stage Ego develops - child becomes aware of the demands of reality as parent imposes potty training on the child 

• outcomes of the fixation:

• - Anal retentive- obsessive, tidiness, neatness, intolerance and passive agression.     

•  - anal repulsive: sloppiness, disorganised, defiant, recklessness + excessive generosity 

phallic stage (3-5)

• organ of pleasure= genitals, child becomes aware of sex differences; it becomes obsessed with its own genitals 

• oedipus complex and electra complex occurs in this stage 

• result of fixation in this stage: anxiety and inadequacy. issues with gender identity and moral understanding 

• MEN: feelings of anxiety + guilt about sex. Fear of castration, Vanity, self obsession and narcissism

• WOMEN: feelings of inferiority and envy ( penis envy)

• reason of why might fixation may occur in this stage: abnormal family set up leading to unusual relationship with mum/dad 

Oedipus complex (boys)

The Oedipus Complex is a concept from Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development, occurring during the phallic stage. It is characterized by:

• Origin: Rooted in the Greek tragedy of King Oedipus.

• Core Idea: Children develop unconscious sexual desires for their opposite-sex parent (e.g., boys for their mother).

• Sibling Rivalry: They view the same-sex parent as a competitor for their desired parent's affection, leading to resentment.

Specifically for boys:

• Maternal Desire: Boys unconsciously desire their mothers.

• Paternal Competition: They perceive their father as a rival but realize he is stronger and cannot be competed with.

• Castration Anxiety: Upon realizing girls lack a penis, boys fear their father will castrate them as punishment if their desire for their mother is discovered.

• Resolution: To resolve this anxiety, boys identify with their father, internalizing his morals and standards, which forms the superego. They believe that becoming more masculine will earn their father's approval and prevent castration.

electra complex (girls)

• The Electra Complex, though not clearly defined by Freud, describes how girls develop.

• Freud viewed femininity as "failed masculinity" and suggested that girls believe their mothers castrated them, leading to a weaker superego than boys.

• Girls experience Penis Envy, turning to their fathers hoping to regain a penis, and can only resolve this by having a male baby, taking a male lover, or pursuing a career to compensate.

latency stage (6-12 years)

• sexual desires in this stage (libido) remain dormant and conflicts are either repressed/resolved 

• early years are largely forgotten and children want nothing to do with sexual relationships ( however social and intellectual developments occurs)

• focus shifts to other pursuits such as education, social relationships and other skills necessary for successful adult life 

genital stage ( 12 years/puberty - death/adulthood)

• during this stage- individuals become sexually mature and begin to explore their sexual feelings and desires more maturely and responsibly

• this period marks the onset of romantic and sexual emotions - leading to the formation of intimate relationships 

• sexual instinct is directed to sexual pleasure, rather than self pleasure like in the phallic stage

• if individuals have unresolved conflicts/issues in this stage - can lead to fixation problems : sexual dysfunction, difficulties forming healthy relationships, or other emotional problems 

case study evidence Little Hans

The case study of Little Hans (Herbert Graf) is a key piece of evidence used by Freud to support his theory of psychosexual development, particularly the Oedipus complex during the phallic stage (3-5 years).

• Subject: A 5-year-old boy named Hans who developed a phobia of horses, specifically fearing that a horse would bite him.

• Freud's Interpretation: Freud interpreted Hans's phobia as symbolic of an unconscious fear of his father.

• Oedipus Complex:

  • Hans unconsciously desired his mother and viewed his father as a rival.

  • The fear of horses (especially a white horse with a black muzzle, which Freud linked to his father's mustache and glasses) was a displacement of his castration anxiety – the fear that his father would punish him for his desires towards his mother.

• Resolution: According to Freud, Hans resolved his Oedipus complex by identifying with his father, internalizing his father's values, and repressing his earlier sexual desires for his mother. This resolution was marked by the disappearance of his horse phobia.

• Significance: This case study is often cited as empirical support for the existence of the Oedipus complex and the functioning of defense mechanisms (like displacement and repression) in resolving unconscious conflicts, contributing to the formation of the superego.

classical conditioning

learning through association

Ivan Pavlov - classical conditioning

• revealed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of the bel (if the sound was repeatedly prsented at the same time as they were given food

• the dogs learnt to associate the sound of the bell with the food and would produce salivation response every time they heard the bell

• from this he was able to show how a neutral stimulus can elicit a new learned response through association

what was the

neutral stimulus,

unconditioned response,

conditioned response,

unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s research

• neutral stimulus = bell

• unconditioned response= salvation

• conditioned response= salivation

• unconditioned stimulus= food

• conditioned stimulus= food

assumptions of behaviourist approach

• we are born as a blank slate- behaviour is learnt from our environment + experiences we have within our environment 

• there is little difference between learning that takes place in humans + that in other animals ( research can be carried out on animals as well as humans

• behaviourism → focuses on behaviour that is observable as opposed to internal events e.g. thinking and emotion (observable behaviour (i.e external) can be objectively + scientifically measured)

Negative reinforcement 

occurs when an animal/human avoids something unpleasant 

positive reinforcement

receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed

punishment

an unpleasant consequence of behaviour

what does negative/positive reinforcement + punishment do to the likelihood of a behaviour repeated again? 

positive and negative reinforcement increases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated 

punishment decreases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated 

Skinner’s research : Skinner’s box ( the aspect of positive reinforcement)

• Skinner conducted experiments with rats and pigeons (sometimes) in specially designed cages called Skinner Boxes

• every time the rat pressed the lever (or pigeon pecked at the disk) within the food box a food pellet was dispensed → from then on, the animal would continue to carry out this behaviour