approaches

unconscious

the part of the mind containing mental processes that are inaccessible to the conscious awareness yet continue to exert an influence on thoughts, feelings and behaviour 

ID

one of the three components of the personality acc. to psychodynamic approach

• operates according to “pleasure principle”

• primitive part of personality - present at birth

• made up of conscious drive + instincts such as aggressive thoughts

• is selfish and demands instant gratification

Superego

one of the three components of the personality acc. to psychodynamic approach

• morality principle

• it is our internalised sense of right and wrong

• punishes ego for doing wrong through guilt

• the superego opposes and battles the desires of the ID

Ego

one of the three components of the personality acc. to psychodynamic approach

• develops around the age of 2

• works on the reality principle

• acts as a mediator bet. ID and Superego

• the role is to reduce the conflict (and associated anxiety) bet. the demands of ID + Superego

• does this by employing defence mechanisms

Psychodynamic Approach assumptions

• unconscious processes of which we are unaware, determine our behaviour 

• the personality (psyche) has a distinct structure of three parts ( ID, Ego, Superego)

• the unconscious conflicts in the personality are mediated by processes called defence mechanisms 

• personality is constructed by the passage through psychosexual stages of development 

role of preconscious  

• includes thoughts and ideas which we may become aware during dreams or slips of the tongue called parapraxes 

role of conscious 

the part of our mind that we are aware of - merely the tip of the iceberg

role of unconscious

• contains threatening/disturbing memories that have been repressed ( put to the back of our mind) or locked away and forgotten due to defence mechanisms

• protects the conscious self from anxiety/fear/trauma/conflict

defence mechanisms

• unconscious strategies employed by the ego to reduce anxiety caused by the ID-Superego conflicts

• are called ego-defence mechanisms - as anxiety weakens the influence of the ego- but it needs to be strong to mediate bet the id  + superego

• are considered helpful - as they prevent the ego becoming overwhelmed by trauma and threats 

• 3 types of defence mechanisms

name the 3  defence mechanisms

• repression

• denial 

• displacement 

repression 

forcing a distressing memory from the conscious mind

denial

refusing to believe something because it’s too painful to acknowledge the reality

displacement

transferring feelings from the source of distressing emotion on a substitute target

psychosexual stages : the importance of early childhood experiences

• Psychodynamic theory states that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality

• Events that occur in childhood can remain in the unconscious, and cause problems as adults

• Freud proposed that all children go through the same five stages of development.

Psychosexual Development

• Freud claimed that child development occurred in five stages.

• Each stage, apart from latency is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage.

• Any conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage through adult life.

• Fixation may occur due to trauma, pleasant or unpleasant experiences, change in environment etc

what are the 5 stages of the psychosexual development

The 5 stages are:

– the oral stage: 0-1 year of age

– the anal stage: 1-3 years of age

– the phallic stage: 3-5/6 years of age

– the latent stage: 6-11 years of age

– the genital stage: 12+ years of age

oral stage (0-1 years)

• mouth is the focus of sensation and pleasurable experiences

• focus of desire= mother’s breast (feeding)

• freud suggested that an individual come become fixated in this stage if they were under/over fed as a baby

• fixation at this stage could lead to: smoking, nail biting, eating and drinking

anal stage (1-3 years)

• organ of pleasure = anus ( derives pleasure from expelling or withholding faeces)

• in this stage Ego develops - child becomes aware of the demands of reality as parent imposes potty training on the child 

• outcomes of the fixation:

• - Anal retentive- obsessive, tidiness, neatness, intolerance and passive agression.     

•  - anal repulsive: sloppiness, disorganised, defiant, recklessness + excessive generosity 

phallic stage (3-5)

• organ of pleasure= genitals, child becomes aware of sex differences; it becomes obsessed with its own genitals 

• oedipus complex and electra complex occurs in this stage 

• result of fixation in this stage: anxiety and inadequacy. issues with gender identity and moral understanding 

• MEN: feelings of anxiety + guilt about sex. Fear of castration, Vanity, self obsession and narcissism

• WOMEN: feelings of inferiority and envy ( penis envy)

• reason of why might fixation may occur in this stage: abnormal family set up leading to unusual relationship with mum/dad 

Oedipus complex (boys)

The Oedipus Complex is a concept from Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development, occurring during the phallic stage. It is characterized by:

• Origin: Rooted in the Greek tragedy of King Oedipus.

• Core Idea: Children develop unconscious sexual desires for their opposite-sex parent (e.g., boys for their mother).

• Sibling Rivalry: They view the same-sex parent as a competitor for their desired parent's affection, leading to resentment.

Specifically for boys:

• Maternal Desire: Boys unconsciously desire their mothers.

• Paternal Competition: They perceive their father as a rival but realize he is stronger and cannot be competed with.

• Castration Anxiety: Upon realizing girls lack a penis, boys fear their father will castrate them as punishment if their desire for their mother is discovered.

• Resolution: To resolve this anxiety, boys identify with their father, internalizing his morals and standards, which forms the superego. They believe that becoming more masculine will earn their father's approval and prevent castration.

electra complex (girls)

• The Electra Complex, though not clearly defined by Freud, describes how girls develop.

• Freud viewed femininity as "failed masculinity" and suggested that girls believe their mothers castrated them, leading to a weaker superego than boys.

• Girls experience Penis Envy, turning to their fathers hoping to regain a penis, and can only resolve this by having a male baby, taking a male lover, or pursuing a career to compensate.

latency stage (6-12 years)

• sexual desires in this stage (libido) remain dormant and conflicts are either repressed/resolved 

• early years are largely forgotten and children want nothing to do with sexual relationships ( however social and intellectual developments occurs)

• focus shifts to other pursuits such as education, social relationships and other skills necessary for successful adult life 

genital stage ( 12 years/puberty - death/adulthood)

• during this stage- individuals become sexually mature and begin to explore their sexual feelings and desires more maturely and responsibly

• this period marks the onset of romantic and sexual emotions - leading to the formation of intimate relationships 

• sexual instinct is directed to sexual pleasure, rather than self pleasure like in the phallic stage

• if individuals have unresolved conflicts/issues in this stage - can lead to fixation problems : sexual dysfunction, difficulties forming healthy relationships, or other emotional problems 

case study evidence Little Hans

The case study of Little Hans (Herbert Graf) is a key piece of evidence used by Freud to support his theory of psychosexual development, particularly the Oedipus complex during the phallic stage (3-5 years).

• Subject: A 5-year-old boy named Hans who developed a phobia of horses, specifically fearing that a horse would bite him.

• Freud's Interpretation: Freud interpreted Hans's phobia as symbolic of an unconscious fear of his father.

• Oedipus Complex:

  • Hans unconsciously desired his mother and viewed his father as a rival.

  • The fear of horses (especially a white horse with a black muzzle, which Freud linked to his father's mustache and glasses) was a displacement of his castration anxiety – the fear that his father would punish him for his desires towards his mother.

• Resolution: According to Freud, Hans resolved his Oedipus complex by identifying with his father, internalizing his father's values, and repressing his earlier sexual desires for his mother. This resolution was marked by the disappearance of his horse phobia.

• Significance: This case study is often cited as empirical support for the existence of the Oedipus complex and the functioning of defense mechanisms (like displacement and repression) in resolving unconscious conflicts, contributing to the formation of the superego.

classical conditioning

learning through association

Ivan Pavlov - classical conditioning

• revealed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of the bel (if the sound was repeatedly prsented at the same time as they were given food

• the dogs learnt to associate the sound of the bell with the food and would produce salivation response every time they heard the bell

• from this he was able to show how a neutral stimulus can elicit a new learned response through association

what was the

neutral stimulus,

unconditioned response,

conditioned response,

unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s research

• neutral stimulus = bell

• unconditioned response= salvation

• conditioned response= salivation

• unconditioned stimulus= food

• conditioned stimulus= food

assumptions of behaviourist approach

• we are born as a blank slate- behaviour is learnt from our environment + experiences we have within our environment 

• there is little difference between learning that takes place in humans + that in other animals ( research can be carried out on animals as well as humans

• behaviourism → focuses on behaviour that is observable as opposed to internal events e.g. thinking and emotion (observable behaviour (i.e external) can be objectively + scientifically measured)

Negative reinforcement 

occurs when an animal/human avoids something unpleasant 

positive reinforcement

receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed

punishment

an unpleasant consequence of behaviour

what does negative/positive reinforcement + punishment do to the likelihood of a behaviour repeated again? 

positive and negative reinforcement increases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated 

punishment decreases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated 

Skinner’s research : Skinner’s box ( the aspect of positive reinforcement)

• Skinner conducted experiments with rats and pigeons (sometimes) in specially designed cages called Skinner Boxes

• every time the rat pressed the lever (or pigeon pecked at the disk) within the food box a food pellet was dispensed → from then on, the animal would continue to carry out this behaviour

cognitive approach assumptions

1. Internal mental processes can and should be studied

   • These processes are private but can be studied indirectly through behaviour.

   • Psychologists make inferences about mental processes.

2. The mind works like a computer

   • Information is input, processed, stored and output.

   • This is known as the computer analogy.

3. Scientific methods are used

   • Cognitive psychologists use controlled experiments, case studies and brain scans.

   • This allows research to be objective and reliable.

Internal Mental Processes

• Private mental operations that mediate between stimulus and response.

• Studied indirectly by observing behaviour and making inferences.

examples of internal mental processes

• Perception

• Attention

• Memory

Inference:

• means drawing conclusions about internal mental processes by observing behaviour under controlled conditions.

• Cognitive psychologists use inference because mental processes are internal and cannot be directly observed.

• Behaviour is used as evidence to work out how information is being processed in the brain.

5 key features of the cognitive approach

1. The role of inference (internal mental processes)

2. Schemas

3. Theoretical models of cognitive processes 4. Computer models of cognitive processes

The Role of Schemas

• Schemas are mental frameworks or “packages” of information developed through experience.

• They help us interpret incoming information and respond appropriately.

• Schemas act as cognitive shortcuts, allowing fast processing of information.

Development of Schemas

• Infants are born with basic motor schemas (e.g. sucking, grasping).

• Adults have more detailed schemas for complex situations (e.g. going to the cinema)

Strengths of Schemas:

• Allow quick interpretation of large amounts of information

• Help us predict events based on past experience

• Prevent cognitive overload

Weaknesses of Schemas:

• Can cause us to ignore information that does not fit expectations

• Can lead to biased thinking and behaviour

• In eye-witness testimony, schemas (e.g. stereotypes) can distort memory

• Negative schemas may contribute to mental health problems (e.g. anxiety about exams)

Use of Models

• Models are representations used to explain unobservable mental processes.

• They make cognitive processes concrete and testable.

Theoretical Models

• Diagrammatic representations using boxes and arrows.

• Explain stages of mental processes.

• Examples:

  • Information Processing Model

  • Multi-Store Model of Memory

Multi-Store Model of Memory:

• Sensory Register

• Short-Term Memory (STM)

• Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Attention + Rehearsal

• Attention transfers information from the sensory register to STM.

• Rehearsal keeps information in STM and transfers it to LTM.

Computer Models & Human-Computer Analogy

• Cognitive psychologists compare the mind to a computer.

• Both systems:

  • Receive input

  • Encode and store information

  • Produce output

Human–Computer Analogy Table:

• Computer models are software simulations of mental processes.

• Used in artificial intelligence research

Stage	Human	Computer
Input	Senses	Data input
Storage	STM & LTM	Memory / hard drive
Output	Behaviour	Display / print

Cognitive Neuroscience

• The scientific study of the biological structures underlying cognition.

• Focuses on how brain structures are involved in:

  • Memory

  • Perception

  • Attention

  • Awareness

• Uses brain imaging techniques:

  • fMRI

  • PET scans

Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience

• Developments in brain scanning have allowed direct observation of brain activity.

• Combines:

  • Cognitive psychology (inference)

  • Biological psychology (brain structure)

Research Evidence for Cognitive Neuroscience Maguire et al. (Taxi Drivers)

• Larger hippocampi in London taxi drivers.

• Size correlated with time spent driving taxis.

• Supports role of hippocampus in spatial memory.

Research Evidence for Cognitive Neuroscience HM

• Damage to hippocampus prevented formation of new LTM.

• STM remained intact.

• Supports the idea of separate memory stores.

humanistic approach

• emerged in the 1950s in the USA.

• Key figures: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

• Known as the “third force” in psychology, alongside:

  • Behaviourism

  • Psychodynamic approach

• Focuses on healthy growth, free will and personal fulfilment, rather than mental illness.

Core Assumptions of the Humanistic Approach

• Free Will

  • Humans have the ability to choose their own behaviour.

  • Although constrained by biology and society, individuals can make meaningful choices.

• Each Person is Unique (Idiographic)

  • People should be studied as individuals, not generalised groups.

  • Rejects nomothetic (scientific/generalising) approaches.

• Holistic View

  • Humans should be viewed as a whole.

  • Behaviour cannot be reduced to simple components.

• Rejection of Scientific Methods

  • Humanistic psychologists believe behaviour cannot be measured objectively.

  • Emphasis is placed on subjective experience

Free Will

• The belief that humans have choice and control over their actions.

• Behaviour is not determined by unconscious forces or conditioning alone.

Self-Actualisation

• An innate drive to achieve one’s full potential.

• Involves personal growth, fulfilment and satisfaction.

• Unique to each individual.

• Rare and temporary — only around 1% of people achieve it.

• Represents the ultimate level of psychological well-being.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow proposed that self-actualisation is achieved by fulfilling five levels of needs, in order

The Five Levels:

1. Physiological needs – food, water, sleep

2. Safety needs – security, stability

3. Love and belonging – relationships, affection

4. Esteem needs – self-respect, achievement

5. Self-actualisation – personal growth and fulfilment

• A lower need must be met before progressing.

• If a need is no longer met, a person can move back down the hierarchy.

• Self-actualisation is difficult because all needs must be fulfilled simultaneously

Self-Concept + Ideal Self

Self-Concept

• How a person sees themselves.

Ideal Self

• The person an individual wants to be.

Congruence

• When the self-concept and ideal self are similar.

• Leads to:

  • High self-esteem

  • Psychological well-being

  • Greater chance of self-actualisation

Incongruence

• A large gap between self-concept and ideal self.

• Leads to:

  • Anxiety

  • Low self-worth

  • Psychological problems

Conditions of Worth

• Conditions of worth are requirements that must be met to receive love and approval.

• Also known as conditional positive regard.

• Often learned in childhood from parents.

Effects of Conditions of Worth

• Prevents unconditional positive regard

• Leads to incongruence

• Makes self-actualisation difficult

• Can cause long-term psychological issues

Unconditional Positive Regard

• Love and acceptance without conditions.

• Rogers believed this was essential for healthy development.

• Often missing in childhood → leads to later problems.

Influence on Counselling Psychology

Client-Centred Therapy

• Developed by Carl Rogers.

• Therapist provides:

  • Unconditional positive regard

  • Empathy

  • Genuineness

• Aims to reduce incongruence and promote self-actualisation.

Social Learning Theory

• proposed by Albert Bandura.

• It developed from the behaviourist approach.

• SLT suggests behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of others.

• Unlike behaviourism, SLT recognises the role of cognitive (mental) processes in learning.

• Behaviour is not just stimulus–response; individuals think and make choices.

Core Assumptions of SLT

• Behaviour is learned from the environment through observation.

• Learning occurs in a social context.

• SLT acts as a bridge between behaviourism and the cognitive approach:

  • Like behaviourism → emphasises learning and reinforcement

  • Like cognitive → acknowledges mediational processes

• Learning can occur directly (conditioning) and indirectly (vicarious reinforcement).

• Uses scientific methods, such as lab experiments and controlled observations.

Imitation

When an individual observes and copies the behaviour of another person.

Identification

• When an observer relates to a role model.

• People are more likely to imitate those they identify with.

• Role models tend to:

  • Be similar to the observer

  • Be attractive

  • Have high status

• Role models can be real or from the media.

Modelling

The process of observing and imitating a role model’s behaviour.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Mediational Processes

• Learning does not happen automatically.

• Cognitive processes occur between stimulus (observation) and response (imitation).

• Bandura identified four mediational processes:

Mediational Processes: Attention

The observer must notice the behaviour and its consequences.

Mediational Processes: Retention

• The behaviour must be remembered.

• Stored in long-term memory.

• Imitation may be delayed.

Mediatational Processes: Motor Reproduction

The observer must have the ability and skills to perform the behaviour.

Motivation

• The observer must want to perform the behaviour.

• Influenced by expected rewards (often vicarious reinforcement).

Bandura’s Research – Bobo Doll Studies

• Children observed adults behaving aggressively or non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll.

• Children who observed aggression were more likely to imitate it.

• Demonstrated:

  • Imitation

  • Identification

  • Vicarious reinforcement

• Supported the role of mediational processes in learning.

The Biological Approach

• explains behaviour in terms of internal biological processes.

• Behaviour has a biological origin, influenced by:

  • Genes

  • Brain structures

  • Neurochemistry

• Behaviour and genes have evolved through natural selection.

• The approach uses scientific methods to study behaviour.

Core Assumptions of the Biological Approach

• All behaviour has a biological basis

  • Behaviour is influenced by genes, the nervous system and neurochemistry.

• Evolution and natural selection

  • Behaviours that aid survival and reproduction are passed on.

  • Adaptive behaviours become more common over generations.

• Scientific methodology

  • Behaviour should be studied using objective, scientific methods.

  • Includes brain scans, drug trials and genetic studies.

Genes

Units of heredity passed from parents to offspring.

Neurochemistry

Chemicals in the brain that regulate behaviour.

Neuroanatomy

Structure and organisation of the brain.

Genotype:

Genetic makeup of an individual.

Phenotype:

Observable characteristics influenced by genes and environment.

Evolution:

Changes in inherited characteristics over generations.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger between neurons

Monozygotic (MZ) twins

Identical twins sharing 100% of genes.

Dizygotic (DZ) twins

Non-identical twins sharing ~50% of genes.

Biological Structures and Behaviour

• behaviour is influenced by biological structures such as:

  • Brain

  • Central Nervous System (CNS)

  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

  • Endocrine system

• Different brain areas are linked to different functions

occipital lobe, parietal lobe, frontal lobe

• Occipital lobe → vision

• Parietal lobe → sensory processing

• Frontal lobe → decision-making, inhibition

Evidence: Phineas Gage for behaviour and biological structures

• Damage to frontal cortex led to loss of inhibition and personality change.

• Demonstrates that brain structure influences behaviour.

Neurotransmitters

• Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse.

• Some are:

  • Excitatory – increase likelihood of neuron firing

  • Inhibitory – reduce neuron firing and calm the brain

Examples of neurochemistry and behaviour

• Low serotonin → depression

• High dopamine → schizophrenia

Hormones

• Chemical substances released by endocrine glands.

• Travel through the bloodstream to target organs.

• Slower but longer-lasting effects than neurotransmitters.

Evolution and behaviour

• Behaviours that increase survival and reproduction are adaptive.

• These behaviours are passed on through natural selection.

evolution

changes in inherited characteristics over generations.

an example of evolution and behaviour (agression)

• May have been adaptive for protection and access to resources.

• Increased likelihood of survival and reproduction.

• Aggressive traits become more common in the gene pool.

Cognitive Neuroscience

• Cognitive neuroscience studies how brain structures underpin mental processes.

• Focuses on memory, perception, attention and language.

• Emerged due to advances in brain imaging:

  • fMRI

  • PET scans

Research Methods

• Brain scans

• Case studies of brain-damaged patients

Cognitive Neuroscience Key Evidence

Broca (1860s)

• Damage to left frontal lobe → loss of speech production.

• Identified Broca’s area