Physical Geography Exam 1

What is geography?

The Study of Spatial Patterns on Earth’s Surface (Describe and Explain)

What are the subdisciplines of geography?

Human (People’s Activities) and Physical (Natural environment)

What are the four spheres that physical geography covers?

Atmosphere (Air), Hydrosphere (Water), Biosphere (Life), Lithosphere (Land)

How does the arrow diagram explain the uniqueness of physical geography as a field of study? (Short Essay)

An arrow diagram shows physical geography as a field that is process‑based, interconnected, and focused on how Earth’s natural systems change over time. This visual style highlights what makes physical geography different from other sciences.

What does latitude measure?

Distance north or south of the Equator.

Where are the high-, middle-, and low latitudes located?

0° → 30° → 60° → 90°

What is the longitude?

How far east or west

What is the difference between a large-scale map and a small-scale map?

The amount of detail they show versus the geographic area they cover.

Which will have more distortion: a large-scale or a small-scale map?

Small-scale map

What is a map projection?

Three-dimensional surface into a flat

What is a Mercator projection?

Large-scale maps show small areas with high detail, while small-scale maps show large areas with low detail and significantly more distortion. Because it is impossible to flatten the 3D Earth without distorting shape, area, distance, or direction, cartographers use map projections like the Mercator, which is perfect for navigation because it preserves direction but famously exaggerates the size of landmasses near the poles.

What is an isoline?

The general term for any line connecting points of equal value.

What is a contour line?

Contour Line: equal elevation

What is an isotherm?

equal temperature.

What is an isobar?

equal air pressure

What is a Gradient?

change across distance

How does the distance between isolines relate to changes on the surface of the planet?

Close lines = big change, Wide lines = small change.

What causes the seasons?

As Earth orbits the Sun, the tilt stays pointed in the same direction (23.5 degrees)

What is the aphelion?

Farthest from the Sun.

What is the perihelion?

Closest to the Sun.

What are the solstices? What are the equinoxes?

Solstice = “Sun stands still” (The Sun reaches its highest or lowest point.) Equinox = “Equal night” (Day and night are the same length.)

How does day length vary on different dates and at different latitudes?

Day length varies because of Earth’s axial tilt. At the equator, day length stays close to 12 hours year‑round. As you move toward the poles, day length differences become more extreme, with high latitudes experiencing very long days in their summer and very long nights in their winter. On solstices, the hemisphere tilted toward the Sun gets long days; the opposite one gets short days. On equinoxes, all places receive 12 hours of day and 12 hours of night.

How does the intensity of solar radiation vary based on the way the Earth orbits the sun?

Solar intensity changes because Earth is tilted 23.5° and orbits the Sun. As Earth moves around the Sun, the tilt changes the angle of sunlight and the length of daylight. Higher Sun angle + longer days = more intense radiation (summer). Lower Sun angle + shorter days = less intense radiation (winter).

What is the atmosphere?

The atmosphere is the thin blanket of gases around Earth that protects us, controls the weather, and makes life possible.

What are the primary gases that make up the atmosphere?

Nitrogen (N₂) — about 78% Oxygen (O₂) — about 20.9% Argon (Ar) — about 0.9%

What are greenhouse gases?

Gases that trap heat

What are some examples of greenhouse gases?

Carbon dioxide (CO₂): Absorb Long Wave Radiation Methane (CH₄): Absorb Long Wave Radiation Water vapor (H₂O): Absorb Long Wave Radiation Nitrous oxide (N₂O): Absorb Long Wave Radiation Ozone (O₃): Absorbs shortwave radiation

What are the four layers of the atmosphere when we look at the atmosphere’s structure based on temperature?

Troposphere (↓), Stratosphere (↑), Mesosphere (↓), Thermosphere (↑)

What are the boundaries between those layers called?

Pauses

What is the troposphere? Where is the troposphere? What is the upper boundary of the troposphere called?

Troposphere = lowest layer, where weather happens, located from the surface to about 8–15 km high. Upper boundary = tropopause

How does the average air temperature change with altitude in the troposphere?

The higher you go, the colder it gets

Why does the air temperature in the troposphere get colder as altitude increases?

Higher altitude = farther from the heat = colder air.”

What is the stratosphere? Where is the stratosphere? What is the upper boundary of the stratosphere called?

Stratosphere = second layer, contains ozone layer. Located from ~10 km to ~50 km above Earth. Upper boundary = stratopause

How does the average air temperature change with altitude in the stratosphere?

In the stratosphere, temperature INCREASES with altitude.

Why does the air temperature in the stratosphere get warmer with altitude in the stratosphere?

Ozone absorbs ultraviolet (UV) shortwave radiation from the Sun,

Where is the mesosphere? How does the air temperature change with altitude in the mesosphere?

Mesosphere = 3rd layer, from ~50 km to ~80 km, Temperature decreases with height (coldest layer)

Where is the thermosphere? How does the air temperature change with altitude in the thermosphere?

Thermosphere = 4th layer, starts ~80 km up and extends hundreds of km. Temperature increases with height because it absorbs strong solar radiation.

What is the “weather layer” of the atmosphere?

Troposphere: water vapor

What part of the structure of the atmosphere acts as a lid, preventing weather phenomena from going above it?

Tropopause: warmer and more stable.

What is insolation? How does insolation vary from place to place and from month to month?

Amount of incoming solar radiation

How does the radiation input and output of the planet vary across latitudes?

The planet’s radiation input and output vary by latitude because of the angle of incoming sunlight and differences in surface heating.

Which latitudes have a radiation surplus (i.e., receive more energy from the sun than is emitted by the earth)?

Latitudes from about 0° to 35° (the tropics and subtropics) have a radiation surplus.

Which latitudes have a radiation deficit (i.e., receive more energy from the sun than is emitted by the Earth)?

Areas poleward of about 35° N and 35° S have a net radiation deficit.

How does the planet balance this variation in net radiation?

Together, these atmosphere + ocean systems move excess heat away from the Equator and toward the poles, keeping Earth’s climate in balance.

What are the driving factors affecting air temperatures?

Air temperature is driven by latitude, altitude, land–water differences, cloud cover, ocean currents, and the movement of warm or cold air masses.

How does latitude affect air temperatures?

Latitude affects air temperatures because places closer to the Equator receive more direct sunlight and are warmer, while places closer to the poles receive less direct sunlight and are colder.

What is the maritime effect?

The maritime effect is when large bodies of water moderate the climate of nearby land.

How does the maritime effect impact air temperatures?

Impact on air temperatures: It makes coastal areas have cooler summers, warmer winters, and smaller temperature changes throughout the year because water heats and cools slowly.

What causes the maritime effect?

Water heats up and cools down more slowly than land.

How does the average monthly temperature vary from place to place?

latitude, elevation, distance from the ocean, and local geographic features. These factors influence how much solar energy an area receives and how quickly it heats and cools.

What places have the least seasonal variation in temperatures?

Places near oceans or large bodies of water

What places have the greatest variation in temperatures?

far from oceans—deep inland areas

What is the difference between heat and temperature?

Heat = energy, Temperature = measurement of that energy

What unit(s) are used to measure heat? What unit(s) are used to measure temperature?

Heat is measured in joules (J) or calories (cal). Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), or Kelvin (K).

What are the three modes of heat transfer?

Conduction, Convection, Radiation

What is conduction? What is convection? What is the difference between them?

Conduction happens through contact in solids, liquids, or gases. Convection occurs only through fluid motion. Convection is only possible in a fluid medium.

What is the only mode of heat transfer that does not require a medium?

Radiation.

What is radiation? How do we classify Electromagnetic waves?

Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves. It does not require a medium and can travel through empty space. Classifications: Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared radiation, Visible light, Ultraviolet radiation, X‑rays, Gamma rays

What is the relationship between wavelength and energy in the context of the electromagnetic spectrum? How does this relate to the energy emitted by an object?

Shorter wavelength = higher energy; longer wavelength = lower energy. Hotter objects give off higher‑energy, shorter‑wavelength radiation; cooler objects give off lower‑energy, longer‑wavelength radiation.

What is the electromagnetic spectrum? Which part of the EM spectrum can humans we see?

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all electromagnetic waves, from low‑energy radio waves to high‑energy gamma rays. Humans can only see the visible light part of the spectrum (ROYGBIV: red to violet).

Is visible light classified as shortwave or longwave radiation?

Shortwave radiation.

What type of radiation does the sun emit? What type of radiation does the earth emit?

The Sun emits shortwave radiation (mostly visible light, UV, and some infrared). The Earth emits longwave radiation (infrared heat).

What happens to isolation as it goes through the atmosphere?

As insolation (sunlight) passes through the atmosphere, some is absorbed, some is reflected, and some is scattered, so less reaches the Earth's surface.

What is albedo?

Albedo is the percentage of incoming sunlight that a surface reflects

Why is the sky blue?

The sky is blue because air molecules scatter blue light more than other colors. This scattering (called Rayleigh scattering) makes the sky look blue to our eyes.

How do clouds interact with both shortwave energy from the sun and longwave energy from the earth?

Clouds reflect shortwave energy (sunlight) back to space, which cools the surface. Clouds absorb and re‑emit longwave energy (Earth’s heat), which warms the surface.

What is a greenhouse gas? What is the Greenhous Effect? What are some important greenhouse gases in the atmosphere?

A greenhouse gas is a gas in the atmosphere that absorbs and traps heat (longwave radiation). The Greenhouse Effect is the natural process where greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, keeping Earth warm enough for life. Important greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), Methane (CH₄), Water vapor (H₂O), Nitrous oxide (N₂O), Ozone (O₃).

How much insolation actually reaches and heats the earth’s surface? Around what percentage of insolation is absorbed by the atmosphere? What gas in the atmosphere absorbs that insolation? What type of radiation is absorbed by that gas?

About 50% of insolation reaches and heats Earth’s surface, around 20% is absorbed by the atmosphere—mainly by ozone—which absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

Around what percentage of the Earth’s outgoing radiation is trapped by the atmosphere? Around what percentage of the Earth’s outgoing radiation escapes through the atmospheric window?

About 90% of Earth’s outgoing longwave radiation is trapped by the atmosphere, and roughly 10% escapes through the atmospheric window.

When considering the global energy budget, is there a balance between the planet’s surface and the atmosphere when looking only at radiation?

There is no radiative balance between Earth’s surface and the atmosphere, because the surface absorbs more radiant energy than it emits, while the atmosphere emits more radiant energy than it absorbs.

Where is there too much energy, and where is there too little?

Too much energy: Near the Equator, where incoming solar radiation is highest. Too little energy: Toward the poles, where less solar radiation is received.

How is the energy surplus at the Earth’s surface ultimately transferred to the atmosphere to balance the global energy budget?

The energy surplus at Earth’s surface is transferred to the atmosphere through radiation, convection, and evaporation/latent heat. Warm surfaces emit longwave radiation, heat rises and mixes air through convection, and evaporation carries heat upward when water vapor condenses in the atmosphere.

What is latent heat? How is latent heat important in the global energy budget?

Latent heat is the energy absorbed or released when water changes phase (evaporation, condensation, freezing, melting) without changing temperature. It is important to the global energy budget because evaporation moves huge amounts of heat from the surface into the atmosphere, and when water vapor condenses, that heat is released, helping drive weather, storms, and atmospheric circulation