IB Psychology HL - Memory and decision making (theory)

Localization of function

Localization of function

• The theory that a given function is localised in specific areas of the brain.

• certain brain structures or brain regions are the genesis of particular behaviours, cognitions and emotions.

• detected using brain imaging techniques (BIT) that demonstrate activity, or lack of activity, in specific brain areas (fMRI, PET scan) or demonstrate neuroplastic change over time (MRI using a longitudinal design)

Amygdala

Plays a role in the formation of emotional memory and fear responses

Hippocampus

Located in the Medial temporal lobe, responsible for the transfer of STM to LTM

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to rearrange the connections between its neurons as a response to learning and experiences.

• Also occurs in cases of brain injury, to compensate for lost functions or to maximise the remaining (undamaged) functions 

• A high level of stimulation and numerous learning opportunities lead to an increase in density of neural connections 

Dendritic branching

Neurons connect to create a new trace in the brains after learning which cause the dendrites of the neurons to grow in number and connect with other neurons

Neurotransmission

The release, reception, and processing of chemical signals (neurotransmitters) between neurons at synapses. This communication facilitates the encoding, consolidation, and retrieval of memories by influencing the strength and efficiency of neuronal connections in the brain

Process of neurotransmission

Action potential (electrical impulse) travels down the axon → Releases neurotransmitters stored in the axon terminal → Reach the synaptic gap and diffuse across it → Reach the receptor sites on the post-synaptic membrane of another neuron

Inhibitory transmitter

Decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing by hyper polarizing the postsynaptic membrane and inhibiting action potential generation.

Excitatory transmitter

Increase the likelihood of a neuron firing by depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane and facilitating action potential generation.

Neural pruning

• process that optimizes the brain's neural networks by eliminating weaker or redundant synaptic connections.  

• helps to enhance the efficiency of neural circuits involved in memory storage and retrieval. This means that memory processes become more streamlined, with faster and more accurate recall of information.

• also involved in memory consolidation, STM→LTM.

Agonist

A substance that interacts with neurotransmitter receptors. Enhance neurotransmission by mimicking the action of natural neurotransmitters and activating receptors (e.g. Acetylcholine ACH).

Antagonist

A substance that interacts with neurotransmitter receptors. It blocking receptors and preventing the action of natural neurotransmitters. (eg. Scopolamine).

Hormones

They are chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, they travel through the bloodstream and into the tissues to exert their function. Produced in the adrenal glands (part of the endocrine system).

Cortisol

• Produced in the adrenal glands. It increases the amount of glucose in blood and increases metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. Also provides energy for “Fight or flight”.

Cortisol levels:

• Moderate: help in consolidation and retrieval of memories

• High: impair memory retrieval and may lead to hippocampal impairment

Multi-store model of memory

• Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

• Sensory Memory: Briefly holds sensory information (e.g., sights, sounds) from the environment. Lasts approximately 0.5 to 2 seconds. E.g. briefly hearing a long on the radio and humming the tune 

• Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporarily stores information for immediate use or manipulation. Lasts around 15-30 seconds without rehearsal. Encoding is primarily acoustic (by sound). E.g. remembering a phone number long enough to dial it.

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores information over prolonged periods, potentially a lifetime. It is long-lasting, potentially permanent. The encoding is primarily semantic (by meaning), but can also be visual or acoustic. E.g. Recalling your first day of school.

Primacy effect

The ability to recall words at the beginning of the list (rehearsed into LTM)

Recency effect

The ability to recall words that have just been spoken (still in STM)

MRI

Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Uses a magnetic field and radio waves to map the activity of hydrogen molecules. Non-invasive, high-resolution. Only shows structure and correlational (not cause & effect)

PET

Positron emission tomography observes metabolic processes by detecting the gamma rays emitted by a tracer (high radioactivity=high activity). Patient is inject FDG to see where it goes. Allows participant to perform task but invasive, slow and poor resolution.

fMRI

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging shows brain activity by measuring blood flow and oxygen levels detected through magnetism. Non-invasive and high resolution. Lack ecological validity.

Schema theory

• a cognitive theory about how information is organised and processed in the brain. It posits that our knowledge and experiences are structured into mental frameworks or "schemas" that help us interpret and understand the world. These schemas are built from past experiences and are used to make sense of new information, guide behaviour, and predict outcomes.

Types of memory

Declarative memory (“knowing what”) is the memory of facts and events and refers to those memories that can be consciously recalled. There are two subsets of declarative memory:

Episodic memory contains the memory of specific events that have occurred at a given time and in a given place.

Semantic memory contains general knowledge of facts and people, for example, concepts and schemas, and it is not linked to time and place.

Procedural memory (“knowing how”) is the unconscious memory of skills and how to do things.

Working memory model

By Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
Central Executive: Acts as the control system, overseeing and coordinating the activities of the other components. It has Limited capacity, does not store information, and is not responsible for higher-level cognitive functions like problem-solving and decision-making.

Phonological Loop: Deals with auditory information and language. Subcomponents: Phonological Store (Inner Ear) and Articulatory Rehearsal Process (Inner Voice). It has limited capacity, typically involves the temporary storage and manipulation of verbal information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad:Visual and spatial information. It is responsible for storing and manipulating images and spatial data (aka) "inner eye."

Episodic Buffer (added in 2000): Integrates information from the pholoop, visupad, and LTM into a coherent sequence. Temporary storage system for combined information. bridge between WMM and LTM.

Flashbulb Memory Theory / Brown and Kulik

• Highly detailed and vivid memories of emotionally significant events. Although people are confident in their accuracy, these memories are not immune to distortion over time.

• Key factors affecting FBM: Intensity of emotion, Surprise and Personal significance 

Collectivistic culture

Culture that emphasizes the importance of group harmony and interdependence over individual goals and achievements. It values cooperation, loyalty, and maintaining social harmony. e.g. China

Individualistic culture

Culture that emphasizes individual goals, independence, and personal achievements over group harmony. Encourages self-expression, individual rights, and competition. e.g. USA

Transactive memory

Shared system where groups remember and store information collectively, relying on each other's expertise for recall.

Google effect

the phenomenon where people rely on the internet to retrieve information instead of remembering it, impacting memory recall.

Social cognitive theory

• Emphasises the role of observational learning, social experience, and reciprocal determinism in behaviour acquisition.

• Highlights cognitive processes, understanding how people learn from their social environment and how they regulate their own behaviour

Process:

1. Attention: observe behaviour and consequences from noticeable model and form a mental representation

2. Retention: storing the observed behaviour in LTM

3. Motor reproduction (potential): if skills aren’t within capacity, then observer can’t physically reproduce behaviour

4. Motivation: incentive to imitate the observed behaviour: values, expectancy, etc. Only copied when vicarious reinforcements present: observing prize/ consequences in behaviour so copy

Evaluation

• Difficult to tell when attention has been paid

• Vicarious reinforcement doesn’t guarantee imitation, might copy w/ no incentive

Anchoring bias

The tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions. During decision-making, anchoring occurs when individuals use an initial piece of information to make subsequent judgments. The use of anchors has many different effects on behavior.

Reconstructive/reliability of memory

• The process of recalling information from memory and filling in the gaps with logical assumptions, leading to potential inaccuracies.

• This theory emphazises the active process of remembering, where memory is influenced by our prior knowledge, beliefs, expectations, and social influences.

Enculturation

The process by which individuals learn and adopt the values, norms, and behaviors of their culture through socialization and experience.

1. Family: first agent 

2. Peer groups: opportunities for social learning

3. Education: also teach “hidden curriculum” (integrity, punctuality, obedience etc.) 

4. Media: powerful agents, teaches norms 

5. Religion: Influential agents 

6. Community: customs, traditions, shared beliefs - through interaction 

7. Government: laws, reg. 

8. Economic factors: capitalism, socialism. Etc. 

Cultural dimensions

Framework developed by Hofstede to compare cultural values across different societies, including power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation.

Grey Matter

Densely packed neurons to encode and retrieve memories and volume of grey matter in the prefrontal cortex are associated with working memory capacity and cognitive control.

Prefrontal Cortex and Working Memory

Location: Frontal lobe, involved in working memory, which allows for the temporary storage and manipulation of information.

Processes of MSM

1. Attention: Sensory memory to STM: Information in sensory memory that is given attention moves into STM.

2. Rehearsal: STM to LTM: through rehearsal, either maintenance (repeating information) or elaborative (linking new information to existing knowledge).

3. Retrieval: LTM to STM: Information stored in LTM can be brought back to STM when needed.

Dual Processing Model

• Proposes a two-system view of thinking, to show that we have distinct cognitive processes.

• System 1: employs heuristics - a mental shortcut that focuses on one aspect of a complex problem and ignores the others. System 1 is expected to create certainty that initial response is correct. It suggests that we are more likely to use system 1 when cognitive load is high (lots of information to process), so we make a quick decision. 

• System 2: it starts by thinking carefully about all of the possible ways to interpret a situation and gradually eliminates possibilities based on evidence until we arrive at a solution. Rational thinking allows for deeper analysis to the task and information at hand - less likely to create feelings of certitude and confidence. 

• System 1 is activated before system 2 can do its work, so often system 1 interferes with the effectiveness of system 2. 

Emotion

a psychological state that involves a subjective experience, a physiological behavioral response. Emotions are integral to human experience, influencing thoughts, actions, and social interactions, and are studied to understand their impact on behaviour and mental processes. They can enhance or impair cognitive functions, depending on the context and the type of emotion experienced.

Levels of processing theory (Tech HL)

• Craik & Lockhart, 1972

• predicts that the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last 

• Shallow processing: structural (appearance), phonemic (sound): shallow processing only involves maintenance rehearsal (repetition to help us hold something in the STM and leads to fairly short-term retention of information) 

• Deep processing: semantic processing (deeper analysis of information) : involves elaboration rehearsal which involved a more meaningful analysis

Social Identity Theory (SIT)

Social Categorization (creates in/out groups): categorise themselves and others into social groups based on characteristics (race, gender, nationality). helps individuals simplify/ organise their soc. env.

Social Identification: indi. adopt the identity of the new in-group, internalising group norms, values, behaviours. etc. enhances self-esteem, provides a sense of belonging

Social Comparison: indi. compare in w/ out groups for positive social identity,favoring in-group.

Positive Distinctiveness: desire to achieve a positive and distinct social identity through favourable comparisons with out-groups (boost self esteem)

Effects:

• In-Group Favouritism: viewing in-groups more favourably than out-groups, bias

• Out-Group homogeneity bias: Negative attitudes and behaviours towards out-groups,

• Salience: awareness of own social identities