AP Psych Mod 2.1-2.6 Quiz Vocabulary

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information

Bottom up processing

processing that starts with sensory receptors and builds toward interpretation

Top down processing

processing guided by expectations, experiences, and prior knowledge

Schemas

mental frameworks that organize and interpret information

Perceptual sets

a mental predisposition to perceive something in a certain way

Gestalt

the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts

Closure

the tendency to fill in gaps to see a complete image

Figure and ground

the organization of vision into objects (figure) and background (ground)

Proximity

the tendency to group nearby items together

Similarity

the tendency to group similar items together

Attention

the focus of conscious awareness

Selective attention

focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others

Cocktail party effect

the ability to attend to one voice among many

Inattention blindness

failing to notice visible objects when attention is elsewhere

Change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

Binocular depth cue

depth cues requiring both eyes

Retinal disparity

the small difference between the images each eye sees

Convergence

the inward turning of the eyes for close objects

Monocular depth cues

depth cues available to one eye

Visual perceptual constancies

seeing objects as unchanged despite sensory differences

Concepts

mental groupings of similar items or ideas

Prototypes

the best or most typical example of a concept

Schemas

mental structures that help organize and interpret information

Assimilation

interpreting new information using existing schemas

Accommodation

adjusting schemas to include new information

Algorithms

step

Heuristics

simple thinking shortcuts that speed decision making

Representative heuristics

judging likelihood by how well something matches a prototype

Availability heuristics

judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind

Mental set

the tendency to solve problems using methods that worked before

Priming

the activation of associations in memory

Framing

the way an issue is presented influences decisions

Gambler’s fallacy

the belief that past outcomes affect independent future events

Sunk cost fallacy

continuing something because of invested resources

Executive functions

mental processes for planning, focusing, and regulating behavior

Creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

Divergent thinking

generating many possible solutions

Convergent thinking

finding the single best solution

Memories

the persistence of learning over time

Explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences we consciously know

Episodic memory

memory of personal experiences

Semantic memory

memory of facts and general knowledge

Implicit memory

unconscious memory of skills

Procedural memory

memory of how to perform tasks

Prospective memory

remembering to perform future actions

Long term potentiation

strengthening of neural connections through rehearsal

Working memory model

the model of active mental processing systems

Working memory

temporary active processing of information

Central executive

the part that directs attention and coordinates systems

Phonological loop

the system storing verbal/auditory information

Visuospatial sketchpad

the system storing visual/spatial information

Multi store model

memory system with sensory, short

Sensory memory

brief initial storage of sensory information

Iconic memory

visual sensory memory

Echoic memory

auditory sensory memory

Long term memory

relatively permanent memory store

Short term memory

brief activated memory holding limited info

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of information

Effortful processing

conscious encoding requiring attention

Levels of processing model

the model showing deeper processing improves memory

Structural processing

encoding based on appearance

Phonemic processing

encoding based on sound

Semantic processing

encoding based on meaning

Encoding

getting information into the memory system

Mnemonic devices

memory aids using organization or imagery

Method of loci

mnemonic that uses locations as memory cues

Chunking

organizing information into meaningful units

Hierarchies

organizing information into categories and subcategories

Spacing effect

better retention with spaced study

Memory consolidation

the process of stabilizing memories

Massed practice

cramming information at once

Distributed practice

spacing out study sessions

Primacy effect

better recall of first items

Recency effect

better recall of last items

Storage

maintaining information over time

Maintenance rehearsal

repetition without meaning

Elaborative rehearsal

linking new info to existing knowledge

Highly superior autobiographical memory

extremely detailed personal memory ability

Amnesia

memory loss

Retrograde amnesia

loss of past memories

Anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories

Alzheimer’s disease

degenerative disorder causing memory decline

Infantile amnesia

inability to recall early childhood memories

Retrieval

taking information out of memory storage

Recall

retrieving information without cues

Recognition

identifying information with cues

Context dependent memory

better recall when in the same environment

Mood congruent memory

recalling memories matching your current mood

State dependent memory

better recall when your internal state matches

Testing effect

improved memory from repeated retrieval

Metacognition

awareness and understanding of your own thinking

Forgetting curve

graph showing rapid early forgetting

Encoding failure

information never properly encoded

Interference

disruption of memory from competing information

Proactive interference

old info disrupts new learning

Retroactive interference

new info disrupts old learning

Tip of the tongue phenomenon

feeling unable to retrieve known information

Misinformation effect

memory distortion from misleading info

Source amnesia

forgetting where information came from

Constructive memory

memory built from stored info and expectations