Psych Test Unit 1

Independent variable

the factor in an experiment that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

Random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

Case study

a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

Naturalistic observation

a non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring behvaior without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Directionality problem

Not revealing which variable is the cause and which is the effect

Third variable problem

Another variable added that could trigger the event

Survey

a non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative (random sample of the group)

Self-report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory/ the predictions specify which results will support the theory and which results disconfirm it

Operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in research study as a check on one's own bias

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced/ If they get similar results, confidence in the findings reliability grows.

Dependent variable

the outcome in an experiment that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Confounding variable

a factor in an experiment other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results

Random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Convenience sampling

collectitng research from a group that is readily available

Sampling bias

 a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentable sample

Representativeness

samples that lack bias or any miscontrsution, while typically being a random sample

Generalizability

the extent in which the findings from a specific study can be applied to a larger, more diverse populatio or different situations

Experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control group

group in an experiment that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrats witht the experimental group and served as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on the behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Single-blind procudure

an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo

Double-blind procedure

experimental producre in which BOTH the reserach participants and the researchers are blind about whether the particiapjnnts have received the placebo or the treatment / Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Likert data

questionnaire responses fall on a continuum (strongly diagree-strongly agree)

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

A committee at an institution that reviews and approves research involving human participants to ensure the ethical treatment and protection of those subjects from potential risks

Informed consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate 

Debriefing

The postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

IACUC (Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee)

A federally mandated committee at institutions that use live animals for research, teaching, or testing

Measures of central tendency

Statistical indicators that describe the center or typical value of a data set. They provide a single value that summarizes the overall location of the data

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Variation

The differences and diversity in human traits and behvaiors within a population

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution 

Percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

Skewness

The lack of symmetry in a distribution of scores around the central point, meaning the data points are not evenly distribute

Right skew

 A data distribution where most values are concentrated on the the side, with a tail extending to the right

Left skew

A distribution where most data points cluster on the right side of the graph (higher values), with the tail stretching to the left, indicating the presence of a few extreme low scores that pull the mean down below the median and mode

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of fors, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

Statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that a result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied

Psychological disorder

A disturbance in people’s thoughts, emotions, or behavior that causes distress or suffering and impairs their daily lives

Level of dysfunction

Varying degrees of impairment and dysfunction across different aspects of life

Perception of distress

A psychological or physical discomfort, or a state of emotional suffering that is a key component for identifying psychological disorders

Deviation from the social norm

Behavior or thinking that violates the implicit or explicit rules of a particular society or social group

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of Mental Disorders

A widely used system for classifying, treating, and describing psychological disorders

Eclectic approach

An approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques from various forms of therapy (therapists blending their approaches)

Behavioral perspective

Focusing on the effects of learning principles to reduce unwanted behaviors

Psychodynamic perspective

Therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition; views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight

Humanistic perspective

Theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth

Cognitive perspective

Teaching people new, more adaptive ways of thinking based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

Evolutionary perspective

Evolution of the behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Sociocultural perspective

Explains behavior and mental processes by emphazing the impact of social interactions, cultural norms, shared values, beliefs, and other social and environmental factors

Biological perspective

Links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

Biopsychosocial model

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Diathesis-stress model

The concept that genetic predispositions combine with environmental stressors to influence psychological disorder

Neurodevelopmental disorders

Central nervous system abnormalities (usually in the brain) that start in childhood and alter thinking and behavior (as in intellectual limitations or a psychological disorder)

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity

Autism (ASD)

A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by limitations in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

Schizophrenic spectrum disorders

a group of disorders characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking or speech, disorganized or unusual motor behavior, and negative symptoms; includes schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder

Delusions

A false belief, often of perspective or grandeuer, that may accompany psychotic disorders

Delusions of reference

A fixed, false belief that external events, actions of others, or everyday occurrences have a special and personal meaning for individual, even when there is no factual basis for this connection

Delusions of persecution

A false, fixed belief that others are threatening or conspiring against you, often held with unwavering conviction despite contradictory evidence

Delusions of grandeur

A fixed, false belief that one is superior in terms of importance, power, wealth, identity, or ability, despite having no evidence to support these claims

Hallucinations

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something, in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Disorganized thinking or speech

A disturbance in thought patterns characterized by illogical thoughts, fragmented ideas, and incoherent or nonsensical speech

Word salad

Incoherent mixture of words, phrases, and sentences

Disorganized motor behavior

Unpredictable or unusual movements and actions that impede daily functioning

Catatonia

A state of immobility and unresponsiveness lasting for long periods of time

Negative symptoms

Absence of appropriate behaviors, timeless voices, expresionless faces, mute/rigid bodies

Flat affect

The display of little or no emotion- a common negative symptom of schizophrenia

Catatonic stupor

A state characterized by a marked decrease in responsiveness to the environment, often seen in individuals experiencing severe forms of schizophrenia

Acute schizophrenia

(AKA reactive schizophrenia) a form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently occurs in response to a traumatic event, and from which recovery is much more likely

Chronic schizophrenia

AKA process schizophrenia) a form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late adolescence or early adulthood

Dopamine hypothesis

Theory that schizophrenia is caused by an excess of dopamine activity in the brain, leading to positive symptoms like hallucinations and delusions

Antipsychotic drugs

Biological treatment option used to treat the sevre psychological disorders; effective for treating hallucinations; blocks dopamine receptors

Tardive dyskinesia

Involuntary movement of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs that target D2 dopamine receptors

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

An alternative to drug therapies; It consists of a series of treatments in which a brain seizure is induced by passing electrical current throught the patient’s brain, resets neural pathways, and can cause memory loss

Psychosurgery

Surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior

Lobotomy

A now rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients; The procedure cut the nerves that connect the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain

Group therapy

A form of psychotherapy where a therapist guides a small group of individuals with similar issues or concerns to meet together, share their experiences, and work collaboratively to improve their symptoms and gain support

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

A popular integrated therapy that combines cognitive therpay (chaning self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)

hindsight bias

tendency to see past events as more predictable and obvious than they actually were before they occured. “i knew it all along”