Psych Test 2

Upcoming Test

cognition

thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory

category

set of objects that can be related as equivalent in some way

ex: trucks, wedding

natural concepts

mental groupings that are created "naturally" through your experiences

ex: coming from georgia we would say anything falling from he sky is snow. whereas alaska you might have snow, sleet, etc.

artificial concept

concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics

ex: triangles, artificial concepts to us: buzz

prototype

best example or representation of a concept ex: golden retriever would be a good prototype for a dog

schema

mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts

role schema

makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave

ex: you expect a fireman to be selfless, kind, bold, etc.

event schema or cognitive script

set of behaviors that can feel like a routine

ex: going into an elevator

concepts

Mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experience. Use concepts to see the relationships among the different elements of your experiences to keep everything organized in your mind

three types of concepts

conjunctive: 2+ features, washing machine

relational: larger/north/left, willage is west of north ave

disjunctive: either/or, hot or cold, lights on or off

problem solving

quick, impulsive thought that does not use formal logic or clear reasoning

types of problem solving

trial and error: continue trying diff solutions until something works

algorithm: following formula

heuristic: general problem solving framework (working backwards, breaking task into steps)

mental set

you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now

functional fixedness

type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what is was designed for

anchoring bias

occurs when you focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports your existing beliefs

ex: if you think a professor is rude you notice all the times he is rude

hindsight bias

leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable even though it really wasnt

ex: big-little

representative bias

describes a faulty way of thinking in which you unintentionally stereotype someone or something

availability heuristic

is a heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example or recent experience that is readily available to you even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision

ex: watching jaws then going to the beach

choice blindness

forgetting your choice immediately after you make it

different ways to replicate a study

direct: conduct the same study again, usually with new participants from the same population

systematic: conduct a study that is similar to the original one, but using slightly different methods or stimuli

conceptual: conduct a very different study that still tests the original idea

thinking errors

representative heuristic: making decisions based on prior knowledge

\- ex: you would find a young single male guilty over middle-aged married father

underlying odds: you know the odds of something, but you don't take them into account

\- ex: knowing 80% of people are tall, but guessing a timid women is short

framing: the way that you phrase things

\- ex: what if I give you new technology but every year I kill 40,000 people (this is just a car)

hot cognition: heightened emotions, and now you have to make a decision

common ground

set of knowledge that the speaker and the listener share and they think or otherwise take for granted that they share

audience design

Speakers design their utterances for their audiences by taking into account the audiences' knowledge.

ex: might say my bf instead of jake

situation model

representations about the topic of conversation

ex: sarah has 3 marbles, tom has two more than sarah

priming

occurs when you are thinking about one concept that reminds you about other related concepts

ex: school -> test -> internship

phonemes

\-basic units of sound

\-English uses 45

\-cat has three

morphemes

\-basic units of meaning

\-cat has one

\-semantics refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words

grammar

\-syntax (word order)

\-subject verb object in English

lexicon

words and expressions

gestural languages

\-ASL

\-own grammatical structure

\-same sign for many vocab words

\-language evolves from gesture

divergent thinker

Thinks of all the possible ways to reach a final solution

convergent thinker

thinks for final solution

ex: 1+1=2 is convergent question

creativity criterion

\-originality: has it been done before

\-usefulness: can it be applied to things

\-surprise: come out of no where

Torrance Test of Creative Thinking

fluency, flexibility, originality

ex: finishing drawing based on what is there

intelligence quotient (IQ)

score on a test designed to measure intelligence

\-IQ = mental age/chronological age \*100

\-IQ is not fixed

flynn effect

refers to the observation that each generation has a significantly higher if than the last

defining intelligence

global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment

range of reaction

the theory that each person responds to environment in a unique way based on their genetic makeup

learning disabilities

\-neurological disorders that affect children usually with average to above-average intelligence

\-dysgraphia: results in struggles to write legibly

\-dyslexia: exhibits an inability to correctly process letters

\-dyscalculia: difficulty in learning or comprehending arithmetic

triarchic theory of intelligence

\-Sternberg sees intelligence in three parts

practical: street smarts

creative: inventing or imaging a solution to a problem or situation

analytical: academic problem solving and computations

multiple intelligences theory

\-Gardner says each person has some amount of all linguistic: perceives diff functions of language, different sounds and meanings

logical-

mathematical: capable of seeing numerical patterns musical: perfect pitch, rhythm, play multiple instruments

bodily kinesthetic: high control over movement spatial: ability to perceive the relationship between objects and how they move in

space interpersonal: ability to understand and be sensation to others

intrapersonal: ability to access personal feelings and motivations, and use them to direct behavior and reach personal goals

naturalist: high capacity to appreciate the natural world and interact with the species within it

emotional intelligence

encompasses the ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social cues, etc.

memory

active system

engram

group of neurons that serve as the physical representation of memory

equipotentiality hypothesis

if part of one area of the brain involved in memory is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory function

areas of brain and memory

amydgala: because of its role in processing emotional information it is also involved in memory consolidation

hippocampus: injury to this area leaves us unable to process new declarative memories (H.M.)

cerebellum: create implicit memories (procedural memory, motor learning, and classical conditioning)

arousal theory

strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthn memory

Three memory processes

encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding and types of processing

input of information into the memory

automatic processing: encoding details like time, space,

frequency - done without conscious awareness effortful.

processing: information that requires more work to encode (test material)

three types of encoding

semantic: encoding of words and there meaning (best way of remembering)

visual: encoding images

acoustic: encoding of sounds

recoding

taking the information in the form it is delivered to us and then converting in a way that we can make sense of

storage

creating a permanent record of information

retrieval

\-act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness

\-the act of retrieving a memory makes it much more likely to be retrieved again: retrieval practice effect

encoding specificity principle

when people encode information they do so in specific ways

ex: good to study in the same room you take tests in

cue overload principle

to be effective, a retrieval cue cannot be overloaded with too many memories

ex: if you chew gum during every class it wont help as much on the exam

3 stages of storage

sensory memory: stores exact copy of incoming information for a few seconds (half a second - two seconds)

\- sights, sounds, tastes

\- if we view something as valuable it will move to short term memory.

iconic memory: visual

echoic memory: auditory short term memory: small amounts of information (12-18 seconds) - selective attention. digit span: 7 plus or minus 2. chunking.

working memory: mental scratchpad if youre doing an active task working memory replaces short term memory (read a book, do math, puzzle)

long term memory: stores information relatively permanently

strategies to get short term to long term

maintenance rehearsal: sensitive to interruption, just keep repeating something over and over

elaborative processing: links new information with existing memories and knowledge in long term memory

mnemonic devices: memory aids that help us organize information for encoding: ROY G BIV

amnesia/ types

\-loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma

anterograde amnesia: you cannot remember new information, although you can remember info and events that happened prior to injury (cannot form new episodic memories)

retrograde amnesia: loss of memory for event that occurred prior to the trauma

types of long term memories

implicit: learned outside of our awareness and cannot be consciously recalled.

explicit: declarative memory, factual information like names, faces, and dates. facts that you can actively recall.

explicit broken into

semantic: mental dictionary of basic knowledge

episodic: an autobiographical record of personal experiences. flashbulb memories: where were you when you found out about covid

implicit broken into

procedural: learned actions like driving, typing, swinging a golf club

priming: occurs when you are thinking about one concept reminds you about another related one emotional conditioning

Identic memory

create life like a movie

3 ways to retrieve

recall: access info without cues. direct retrieval of factors of information

recognition: identify information that you have previously learned after encountering again. involves comparison.

recognition > recall.

relearning: involves learning information that you have previously learned

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

savings score

amount of time saved when relearning information

forgetting

refers to the loss of information from long-term memory

encoding failure

when you don't encode memory to begin with

ex: the front side of a penny

storage failure

disuse: infrequent retrieval

memory traces: changes in nerve cells or brain activity. memory decay: the weakening of memory traces - "leaky buckets."

transience

\-forgetting

\-accessibility of memory decreases over time ex: forget things that happened long ago

absentmindedness

\-forgetting

\-forgetting caused by lapses in attention ex: forgetting where your phone is

blocking

\-forgetting

\-accessibility of information is temporarily blocked ex: tip of the tongue

misattribution

\-distortion

\-source of memory confused ex: recalling a dream memory as a waking memory

interference

\-infor stored in our memory, but for some reason it is inaccessible

\-proactive: when old info hinders the recall of newly learned information

\-retroactive: happens when info learned more recently hinders the recall of older info

misinformation effect paradigm

holds that after exposure to incorrect information a person may misremember the original event

false memory syndrome

recall of false autobiographical memories

construction

formulation of new memories

reconstruction

the process of bringing up old memories

suggestibility

describes the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories

self reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

peg word

weird things that help you remember

ex: i need three eggs so i am going to remember a shoe with three eggs in it

learning

relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

reflexes

motor or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment example: knee jerk

instincts

innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events, such as maturation and the change of season

associative learning

simple association among stimuli (little awareness)

\-classical conditioning

\-operant conditioning

classical conditioning

\-unconscious process -associate events/stimuli that happen together

\-antecedent comes before the response

operant condition

\-consequence/reinforcer when something happens

\-happens after response ex: time out vs. prize box

law of effect

idea that learning is the result of consequences

reinforcement

always increases behavior

punishment

always decreases a behavior

positive reinforcement

-a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior
-most effective way to teach a new behavior
(good event begins)

negative reinforcement

-an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase behavior
ex: beep beep beep when you dont have your seatbelt on
(bad event ends)

positive punishment

-a stimulus is added in order to decrease a behavior
-scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in class
(bad events begins)

negative punishment

\-you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior

\-a child misbehaves so you take a way a favorite toy (good events end)

observational learning

adds social and cognitive layers to all the basic associative processes, both conscious and unconscious

\-watching what others do and imitating them

shaping

we reward successive approximations of a target behavior

primary reinforces

-have innate reinforcing qualities, not learned
-water, food, sleep, sex

secondary reinforcers

-has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer
-stickers on behavior chart, money. "great shot"
-praise, attention, approval, success

continuous reinforcement

when an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays behavior

partial reinforcement

the person or animal does not get reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior