AP Psychology Key Terms

Hindsight Bias

Hindsight Bias

Theory

explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations

Hypothesis

a testable prediction often implied by a theory

Operational Definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study (measurable and manageable)

Replication

repeating a research study usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings can be reproduced

Case Study

when one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing something that is true of all of us

Naturalistic Observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

Survey

something in which you are asking people to report their behavior or opinion

Sampling Bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Population

all of the people in a group that are being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member as an equal chance at inclusion

Correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other (this does NOT equal causation)

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots each of which represents the values of two variables

Illusory Correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger than actual relationship

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average

experiment

a research method where an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

experimental group

in an experiment this is the group that is. exposed to the treatment

control group

in an experiment this is the group that serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and and control groups by chance to minimize preexisting differences between the two groups

double blind procedure

an experimental procedure where both the research participants and the research staff are blind about whether the research participants got the treatment or a placebo

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone

independent variable

the factor that is manipulated in an experiment

dependent variable

the variable that is measured in an experiment

informed consent

participants should know enough infor to choose wisely if they are going to participate or not

debriefing

the participants are informed of everything that happened in the experiment

descriptive statistics

the use of numerical data to measure and describe the characteristics of groups

mode

the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

median

the middle score in a distribution

mean

the average of a distribution

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the gap between the lowest and highest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean

normal curve

a bell shaped curve that describes the distribution

inferential statistics

numerical data that allows one to generalize/infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cells life-support center

dendrites

the neurons branches that receive messages from other cells

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages away from the cells body to other neurons or muscles or glands

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer that protectively covers the axons of some neurons; it helps speed up the neural impulses

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired

all or none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing or not firing

synapse

the meeting point between two neurons

neurotransmitters

the chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

endorphins

the things we get when our body releases several types of neurotransmitter molecules similar to morphine in response to pain and vigorous exercise

serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates sleep, mood, appetite, and body temperature

norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter important in controlling alertness, wakefulness, mood, and attention

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

antagonist

a molecule the inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s actions

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

sensory neurons

these carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

these carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

these are within the spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscle

autonomic nervous system

part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. its sympathetic division arouses and its parasympathetic devision calms

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous that calms the body, conserving its energy

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body mobilizing its energy

endocrine system

the body’s slow chemical communication system

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands they travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress

pituitary gland

this gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

lesion

tissue destruction; it can be either naturally or experimentally caused

EEG

measures wave lengths of electrical activity sweeping across the brains surface

CT

series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brains structure

PET

display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

MRI

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to show brain anatomy(structure)

fMRI

reveals blood flow and brain activity

brainstem

central core of the brain that is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

part of the brain that controls heartbeat and breathing

thalamus

the switchboard operator for all of the senses except smell

reticular formation

a nerve network, it plays an important roll in controlling arousal and alertness

Wernicke’s area

associated with the comprehension of written and spoken language

Broca’s area

associated with speech production

cerebellum

the “little brain” which is important for movement and coordination

limbic system

neural system which is involved with emotions and drives

amygdala

part of the limbic system that is linked to aggression, fear, and deep emotions

hypothalamus

controls all behavior controlled by hormones

hippocampus

neural center that is important for memory of explicit(conscious) memories of facts and events

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that are involved in speaking, muscle movements, and making plans and judgments

frontal lobes

this part of the brain is involved in speaking, muscle movements, judgments, and making plans

parietal lobes

this part of the brain is involved in receiving sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

this part of the brain receives information primarily from the visual fields

temporal lobes

part of the brain that has auditory areas that receive information primarily from the opposite ear

motor cortex

this is found at the back of the frontal lobes and it controls voluntary movements

sensory cortex

found at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

plasticity

the brains ability to change after damage

corpus callosum

a large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

behavior genetics

predicting individual differences in behavior based on the limitations of genetics and interaction of environment

heredity

the manner in which characteristics and traits are passed on from parents to offspring

environment

every non genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain genes

DNA

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes