CMN 102 Midterm

Experiential reality

How I feel about being a student at Davis.

- I can feel this way because I have experienced the situation I am talking about

Experiential reality

How I feel about being a student at Davis.

- I can feel this way because I have experienced the situation I am talking about

Agreement reality

How Davis students view UCSB as a party school, but have actually never gone there.

- things we believe are true are based on a social agreement

Agreement reality

How Davis students view UCSB as a party school, but have actually never gone there.

- things we believe are true are based on a social agreement

Tradition (1st kind of agreement reality)

Beef has to be cooked in America before we eat it, but in other countries this is not the case.

- a body of knowledge that has been handed down to us

Tradition (1st kind of agreement reality)

Beef has to be cooked in America before we eat it, but in other countries this is not the case.

- a body of knowledge that has been handed down to us

Authority (2nd kind of agreement reality)

When popular athletes advertise the nutrition facts for a food brand.

- things we believe are true because of an authority figure

Authority (2nd kind of agreement reality)

When popular athletes advertise the nutrition facts for a food brand.

- things we believe are true because of an authority figure

Inaccurate Observation

- scientists create set ways of experimenting in order to overcome inaccuracy.

-Goals in science: to predict and to understand

Inaccurate Observation

- scientists create set ways of experimenting in order to overcome inaccuracy.

-Goals in science: to predict and to understand

Selective Observation

"I'll see it when I believe it"

-try to guard this by doing random sampling

- overcoming error: to make observations conscious and systematic

Selective Observation

"I'll see it when I believe it"

-try to guard this by doing random sampling

- overcoming error: to make observations conscious and systematic

Overgeneralization

stereotype

-we assume that a few similar events are evidence of a general pattern

- overcoming error: random sampling and replicating findings

Overgeneralization

stereotype

-we assume that a few similar events are evidence of a general pattern

- overcoming error: random sampling and replicating findings

Ex Post Facto Hypothesizing

You don't like your neighbor, but then you find out he does nice things to support the community. However, you still continue to find reasons not to like him.

- dismiss observations that are not consistent with our beliefs

Ex Post Facto Hypothesizing

You don't like your neighbor, but then you find out he does nice things to support the community. However, you still continue to find reasons not to like him.

- dismiss observations that are not consistent with our beliefs

Ego-Involvement in Understanding

A scientist comes up with a theory and gets it published. This is the theory that is used for years, but then a new scientist comes in and says there is a flaw in the theory. The old scientist can not accept the fact that his theory has flaws.

- how we see ourselves and how we think others perceive us

Ego-Involvement in Understanding

A scientist comes up with a theory and gets it published. This is the theory that is used for years, but then a new scientist comes in and says there is a flaw in the theory. The old scientist can not accept the fact that his theory has flaws.

- how we see ourselves and how we think others perceive us

Premature Closure of Inquiry

When people thought the world was flat, then when others started to question that the people thought it was unnecessary.

- we believe that we have a clear understanding of how something works so we dismiss other ways of thinking.

- we have already solved the problem

Premature Closure of Inquiry

When people thought the world was flat, then when others started to question that the people thought it was unnecessary.

- we believe that we have a clear understanding of how something works so we dismiss other ways of thinking.

- we have already solved the problem

Mystification

Religion, aliens, the idea of "why ask why?"

-the assignment of supernatural causes to things we can not explain.

Mystification

Religion, aliens, the idea of "why ask why?"

-the assignment of supernatural causes to things we can not explain.

3 broad purposes of research

exploration

description

explanation: idiographic or nomothetic

3 broad purposes of research

exploration

description

explanation: idiographic or nomothetic

Idiographic

Collect the reasons why I go to Davis. Explaining unique factors of a particular case. Based on specific context, individual, and case.

Idiographic

Collect the reasons why I go to Davis. Explaining unique factors of a particular case. Based on specific context, individual, and case.

Nomothetic

Collect reasons why lots of people go to Davis and create quantitative data.Explaining the major factors that shape a wide range of cases. General laws of behavior that can be applied to everyone.

Nomothetic

Collect reasons why lots of people go to Davis and create quantitative data.Explaining the major factors that shape a wide range of cases. General laws of behavior that can be applied to everyone.

Theories

can be approached two ways:

inductive

deductive

Theories

can be approached two ways:

inductive

deductive

Inductive

1. Observations

2. hypothesis

3. test your theory

You feel sick, you are at a restaurant, therefor you can conclude that you feel sick because you ate at the restaurant. Now you have to explain why this is

- this does NOT tell us why it is happening it just tell us that it is happening

-Qualitative

Inductive

1. Observations

2. hypothesis

3. test your theory

You feel sick, you are at a restaurant, therefor you can conclude that you feel sick because you ate at the restaurant. Now you have to explain why this is

- this does NOT tell us why it is happening it just tell us that it is happening

-Qualitative

Deductive (social science)

1. Theory

2. operationalization: specify the meaning of all the variables

3. operational definitions: how are you going to measure the variables

People use Facebook more at night (general) because they have more free time (specific).

- You have to have a theory in order to make a prediction

- Cause and Effect creates a reason to predict, (1st) why, (2nd) whether or not it is true

Deductive (social science)

1. Theory

2. operationalization: specify the meaning of all the variables

3. operational definitions: how are you going to measure the variables

People use Facebook more at night (general) because they have more free time (specific).

- You have to have a theory in order to make a prediction

- Cause and Effect creates a reason to predict, (1st) why, (2nd) whether or not it is true

Theories are...

- Abstractions

- Partial, no theory can describe every feature of a phenomenon

- Constructions, theories are invented by people. It does NOT make sense to to ask if a theory is true it makes sense to ask if it is useful!

Theories are...

- Abstractions

- Partial, no theory can describe every feature of a phenomenon

- Constructions, theories are invented by people. It does NOT make sense to to ask if a theory is true it makes sense to ask if it is useful!

Change of Triviality

When you study something and think it will go one way, but it ends up turning out differently.

- what is sometimes obvious is not always true.

Change of Triviality

When you study something and think it will go one way, but it ends up turning out differently.

- what is sometimes obvious is not always true.

Expectations don't deny the rule

When we say x is associated with y we don't assume the relationship is perfect we jut know there is one.

Expectations don't deny the rule

When we say x is associated with y we don't assume the relationship is perfect we jut know there is one.

Variable and Attributes

variable: car (a class of objects which can vary. You must have at least 2 attributes)

attributes: the qualities that make the cars different (the qualities which compose a variable)

Variable and Attributes

variable: car (a class of objects which can vary. You must have at least 2 attributes)

attributes: the qualities that make the cars different (the qualities which compose a variable)

Independent variable

the variable that we manipulate and this has an effect on the dependent variable

Independent variable

the variable that we manipulate and this has an effect on the dependent variable

Time demensions

cross sectional (one point in time) and longitudinal (a long period of time) studies, the time frame in which you do the study.

Time demensions

cross sectional (one point in time) and longitudinal (a long period of time) studies, the time frame in which you do the study.

Typology

we assign things into types

Typology

we assign things into types

Conceptualization

concept: cup of coffee, you have to agree on what kind of coffee you are going to study b/c everyone can have a different opinion.

by looking at a person you can not tell what they think about a cup of coffee or any other concept with out talking to the person.

Conceptualization

concept: cup of coffee, you have to agree on what kind of coffee you are going to study b/c everyone can have a different opinion.

by looking at a person you can not tell what they think about a cup of coffee or any other concept with out talking to the person.

Ethics of Research

1. research participants should be voluntary

2. no harm to the participant

3. anonymity (you don't know who you are researching and responses are completely anonymous) and confidentiality ( you know who the participants are but you wont release their information)

4. deception- researchers must disclose what they were actually studying when the experiment is over

Ethics of Research

1. research participants should be voluntary

2. no harm to the participant

3. anonymity (you don't know who you are researching and responses are completely anonymous) and confidentiality ( you know who the participants are but you wont release their information)

4. deception- researchers must disclose what they were actually studying when the experiment is over

Establishing Causality

- cause must proceed the effect

- two variables must be correlated: the variables MUST be empirically related

- must be certain their is not a third variable effecting the research

Establishing Causality

- cause must proceed the effect

- two variables must be correlated: the variables MUST be empirically related

- must be certain their is not a third variable effecting the research

Unit of analysis

social skills have a positive relation to income. researcher are interested in the social skills but they are studying the person.

- The what or who being studied

Unit of analysis

social skills have a positive relation to income. researcher are interested in the social skills but they are studying the person.

- The what or who being studied

Unit of Observation

social skills are positively related to income, studying the individual

-what am I collecting data from, what am I observing?

-Some cases it is the same as the UOA

Unit of Observation

social skills are positively related to income, studying the individual

-what am I collecting data from, what am I observing?

-Some cases it is the same as the UOA

Cross sectional research

studying one period of time

- do not compare different points in time

- this is not a good way to show cause and effect

Cross sectional research

studying one period of time

- do not compare different points in time

- this is not a good way to show cause and effect

longitudinal research

- trend studies: change over time in a population

- cohort studies: change over time in a specific sub-population. You sample from the same sub-population but it does not have to be the same people you ask every time.

- panel studies: the panel does not change. The same people are asked the same questions. Most common in experimental research.

longitudinal research

- trend studies: change over time in a population

- cohort studies: change over time in a specific sub-population. You sample from the same sub-population but it does not have to be the same people you ask every time.

- panel studies: the panel does not change. The same people are asked the same questions. Most common in experimental research.

Approximating a longitudinal design

-simple logic: something comes before something else, not cause and effect

- age comparison: looking at people who are different ages, but during the same time period. This is what causes problems in cohort studies

- recollections: tying to remember things in ways that are more positive or negative depending on how they will effect you.

Approximating a longitudinal design

-simple logic: something comes before something else, not cause and effect

- age comparison: looking at people who are different ages, but during the same time period. This is what causes problems in cohort studies

- recollections: tying to remember things in ways that are more positive or negative depending on how they will effect you.

Multi- Method Research

- not always done by the same research team

1. limitations are inherent in any method (way to get at the issue through many different findings)

2. Confidence in findings

3. Neutralization in weaknesses: combining methods negates the weakness of the other.

Multi- Method Research

- not always done by the same research team

1. limitations are inherent in any method (way to get at the issue through many different findings)

2. Confidence in findings

3. Neutralization in weaknesses: combining methods negates the weakness of the other.

Field work

As a researcher I would immerse myself into the culture I was studying.

-observations are done in a the natural setting

- qualitative analysis

- Naturalism: the study of people in their natural environment

-research method

Field work

As a researcher I would immerse myself into the culture I was studying.

-observations are done in a the natural setting

- qualitative analysis

- Naturalism: the study of people in their natural environment

-research method

Unobtrusive measurement

As a researcher I would go undercover into an environment to observe different behaviors without letting my presents effect you the environment functions.

- typically quantitative

- non reactivity: study people without effecting their behavior

- research method

Unobtrusive measurement

As a researcher I would go undercover into an environment to observe different behaviors without letting my presents effect you the environment functions.

- typically quantitative

- non reactivity: study people without effecting their behavior

- research method

Survey Research

studying the population and taking a sample of it in order to hopefully get an understanding of the whole population from the sample.

- quantitative

- generalizability: making observations about people based on a sample of smaller people

- research method

Survey Research

studying the population and taking a sample of it in order to hopefully get an understanding of the whole population from the sample.

- quantitative

- generalizability: making observations about people based on a sample of smaller people

- research method

Experimental research

manipulate the independent variable in order to create an effect on the dependent variable.

- quantitative research

- Causal Explication: helps to draw conclusions based on a cause and effect relationship

- Research method

Experimental research

manipulate the independent variable in order to create an effect on the dependent variable.

- quantitative research

- Causal Explication: helps to draw conclusions based on a cause and effect relationship

- Research method

operationalization

concept: cup of coffee, everyone has to agree on what a cup of coffee is in order to test it accurately

- assign meaning to a concept

- second step in research

operationalization

concept: cup of coffee, everyone has to agree on what a cup of coffee is in order to test it accurately

- assign meaning to a concept

- second step in research

Face- validity

people who go to religious services we could assume practice some form or religion, something that makes sense

- weakest form of validity

- something we can asses at face value

- all forms of validity has to have at least face value

Face- validity

people who go to religious services we could assume practice some form or religion, something that makes sense

- weakest form of validity

- something we can asses at face value

- all forms of validity has to have at least face value

criterion related predictive validity

-validity of a measurement based on outside criteria. Validity of college board exams (effected by the outside variable) and the ability to predict students success in college (outside variable/criteria).

criterion related predictive validity

-validity of a measurement based on outside criteria. Validity of college board exams (effected by the outside variable) and the ability to predict students success in college (outside variable/criteria).

Construct Validity

the degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships.

Construct Validity

the degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships.

Content Validity

-best way to asses content validity is before you measure

-demonstrated by argument not data

Content Validity

-best way to asses content validity is before you measure

-demonstrated by argument not data

Reliability

- It is reliable when it is applied repeatedly to the same object

- ways to test reliability: test-retest method, parallel alternative forms, internal consistency, split half method, cornbach's alpha

Reliability

- It is reliable when it is applied repeatedly to the same object

- ways to test reliability: test-retest method, parallel alternative forms, internal consistency, split half method, cornbach's alpha

Test- Retest method

looks at the stability of a measurement overtime, the test and retest should be very similar, If not you need to reassess.

-Instrumentation effect: if the first assessment will effect the second assessment than the retest method will not work

Test- Retest method

looks at the stability of a measurement overtime, the test and retest should be very similar, If not you need to reassess.

-Instrumentation effect: if the first assessment will effect the second assessment than the retest method will not work

Parallel alternative forms of reliability

there are two equivalent measures for the same construct, if the measurements are reliable then the two methods should correlate. If they correlate they are reliable.

Parallel alternative forms of reliability

there are two equivalent measures for the same construct, if the measurements are reliable then the two methods should correlate. If they correlate they are reliable.

Internal Consistency

- the most common way of assessing reliability, especially when there are multiple indicators

Internal Consistency

- the most common way of assessing reliability, especially when there are multiple indicators

Split- Half method

take a test, split the answers by odd and even if they correlate they are reliable.

Split- Half method

take a test, split the answers by odd and even if they correlate they are reliable.

Cornbach's Alpha

consider the average correlations among all of the items the score will range between 0 and 1.0

Cornbach's Alpha

consider the average correlations among all of the items the score will range between 0 and 1.0

Nominal

Topic: gender, Nominal measurement: Male and Female

-Level of measurement

- qualitative, simply naming or classifying something

Nominal

Topic: gender, Nominal measurement: Male and Female

-Level of measurement

- qualitative, simply naming or classifying something

Oridinal

Ranking democratic candidates based on how you feel about them from 1- 10

-Qualitative

-numbers being ordered

Oridinal

Ranking democratic candidates based on how you feel about them from 1- 10

-Qualitative

-numbers being ordered