Unit 3 Development and Learning (3.6-3.9)

Myers, 4th ed., Modules 3.6a, 3.6b, 3.7a, 3.7b, 3.8a, 3.8b, 3.9

ecological systems theory

a theory of the social environment's influence on human development, using five nested systems (microsystem; mesosystem; exosystem; macrosystem; chronosystem) ranging from direct to indirect influences

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

attachment

an emotional ties with others; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to caregivers and showing distress on separation

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life

strange situation

a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and returns, and the child's reactions are observed

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display a clinging, anxious attachment; an avoidant attachment that resists closeness; or a disorganized attachment with no consistent behavior when separated from or reunited with caregivers

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the questions, "Who am I?"

identity

our sense of self

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships

emerging adulthood

a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many persons in prosperous Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together; the events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequence

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned response (UCR)

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage—when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response (in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response)

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus

extinction

in classical conditioning, the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus (in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced)

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response

generalization

in classical conditioning, the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned response to elicit similar responses (in operant conditioning, when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations)

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus (in operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced)

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an aversive stimulus

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (also known as a secondary reinforcer)

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight learning

solving problems through sudden insight

observational learning

learning by observing others

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe anther doing so

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

antisocial behavior

negative, destructive, harmful behavior