Birth and Death rates

sub-replacement population fertility

a demographic trend involving a shrinking population due to too few children being born

explanations for decline in birth rate and fertility

• reproductive rights

• secularisation

• harper, improvement in female educational attainment

• children no longer being an economic asset

reproductive rights

women have greater reproductive rights, including access to contraception and right to abortion. careers are also prioritised over having children

secularisation

secularisation has increased, reducing the sense that marrying and having children is an expected obligation.

harper - improvement in female educational attainment

argues that priorities have often switched to qualifying for a profession and focusing on a career because of educational attainment

economic asset

children once aided families by working and contributing an income

children are no longer an economic asset

children have become a costly investment as they now have little earning potential and remain in education to 18.

child centredness (buchanan & rotkirch)

a feature of society in which children are often the main focus of families.

the increase in child centredness

having children is now a major commitment, consuming a lot of time and money. as a result adults are increasingly having less/no children.

harper - infant mortality rate

argues that low IMR leads to a reduction in birth and fertility rates because in societies where many babies die, parents will have more children to compensate. in societies where it's certain that a child will live to adulthood, adults are more cautious about how many children they'll have.

consequences of changes in birth and death rates

• childless couples

• single person households

• dependency ratio

dependency ratio

the numbers of working age people in relation to children and pensioners

2021 census

showed the youth dependency ratio (ratio of young people to working age people) has fallen considerably.

mckeown - literate population

argues that because of increased literacy, information on health can be accessed and understood. therefore improved nutrition has improved life expectancy since a better diet leads to resistance to infection

elderly dependency ratio

the numbers of pensioners compared to those of working age. is now 1:3. the vast increase in pensioners puts increased pressure on social services, healthcare and pension payments.

pensions time bomb

if the number of pensioners continue to increase, it may not be possible for the state to provide an adequate pension.

green - institutional ageism

a culture of discrimination against the elderly which results in structured dependency where the elderly are forced to be dependent

infantilisation

the elderly being treated as if they're a burden that needs continual care

hirsch - old age is a period of disengagement

argues that old age is a social construct where society treats old age as a period of inactivity

hunt