Kaspar-ethics study guide 2

1. What is G.E. Moore's argument against the claim that the very meaning of 'good' is 'pleasure'?

If good really meant pleasure, then asking “Is pleasure good?” would be pointless. So therefore there must be a greater meaning to good than just pleasure

2. Why, according to Ross, is utilitarianism a better moral theory than egoism?

Egoism only cares about the self. Utilitarianism is better because it recognizes that morality is social—we have a duty to promote the "good" of others, not just ourselves.

3. Ross holds that utilitarianism simplifies 'unduly our relations to our fellows'. Explain this.

Utilitarianism treats people as mere containers for happiness. Ross says this ignores the specific relationships we have

4. What, according to Ross, is a prima facie duty? What relation does it have to an actual duty?

A Prima Facie duty is a "permanent" moral reason to act (like "keep your promises"). An Actual duty is what you must do in a specific moment after weighing all your Prima Facie duties.

Example: You have a prima facie duty to meet a friend, but if you see a drowning child, your actual duty shifts to saving the child.

5. List three of Ross's fundamental kinds of prima facie duties. How does each one of these arise

• Reparation: Fixing a wrong you did.

• Fidelity: Keeping promises.

• Non-maleficence: Not harming others

6. What is an intuition? Give an example of one

A "gut feeling" of the mind. It’s an immediate intellectual "seeing" that something is true (like knowing 2 + 2 = 4) without needing proof.

7. What is a self-evident proposition? Give an example of a non-moral self-evident proposition.

A statement that is true just by understanding it. Non-moral example: "All bachelor are unmarried." You don't need to do a survey to know this is true; the meaning of the words proves it.

8. What is Ross's position on the use of a supreme principle of morality in ethics?

Ross rejects them and believes life is too complex for one single rule, we should instead use our judgement

9. What is Ross's argument against utilitarianism?

It ignores important moral duties, and can justify doing wrong things if they increase happiness. It does not respect: promises ,fairness, or special relationships

10. What is Ross's method of arriving at truth in ethics?

We look at what the "best and most thoughtful" people have historically believed about right and wrong and test those ideas against our own deep thinking.

11. What, according to Singer, is Absolute Poverty?

Living at the very edge of survival (lack of basic food, water, and shelter).

12. What, according to Singer, is Absolute Affluence?

Having more money than you need to cover your basic necessities.

13. State the main moral principle Singer argues for in his famine article.

If you can prevent something bad from happening without a loss to yourself then you should do it

14. Explain Singer's analogy of the 'child in the pond' to giving to famine relief.

If you walk past a shallow pond and see a child drowning, you’d save them even if it ruined your expensive shoes. Singer says distance doesn't change the logic; a child dying of hunger far away is the same as the child in the pond

15. How does Singer respond to the claim that we should take care of those nearby first & foremost?

Singer argues we should help whoever needs it most. Giving $50 to someone in absolute poverty saves a life; giving $50 to a "nearby" poor person might just buy them a nice dinner. Logic says save the life.

16. How much does Singer propose each of us give to relieve famine?

Give as much as we can as long as we keep what we need to survive, excluding all luxuries

17. How does Singer respond to the objection that we should leave famine relief to the government?

Singer says the government only acts if the people care. By giving personally, you show the government it's a priority and you save lives now instead of waiting for a bill to pass.

18. How does Arthur respond to the claim that 'all life is of equal value?'

Everybody has equal, fundamental rights; rights to life, right to have liberty, but don't think everyone should treated equally (ex. Gandhi and Hitler)

19. What does Arthur mean by 'entitlement'? And how do entitlements relate to our obligations?

a legitimate claim to what is yours (your body, earnings, property) that places limits on what others may demand from us

20. Explain the distinction between negative rights and positive rights.

Negative rights: Your right to be left alone (e.g., nobody can hit you).

Positive rights: Your right to be provided something (e.g., a right to healthcare).

21. What, according to Arthur, is 'the ideal moral code' for a given society?

A set of rules that would actually work for real humans (who are somewhat selfish), rather than a code for "angels" that no one will actually follow.

22. What human realities does Arthur think we should consider in forming the ideal moral code?

Arthur notes humans are naturally selfish and biased toward their own. A code that ignores this will fail because people will simply give up on trying to be "moral.

23. What points does Thomson concede to the pro-life side for the sake of argument?

She assumes the fetus is a person, the fetus has right to life, but the woman has a the right to her body and freedom therefore, abortion is NOT an unjust killing

24. Explain Thomson's 'violinist argument' for why women are permitted to abort fetuses.

You wake up plugged into a famous violinist and if you unplug him he dies. Even though he has a "right to life," he doesn't have a right to your body without your consent.

25. What, according to Thomson, is the argument for the 'extreme view' against abortion?

The claim that abortion is never permissible, even to save the mother's life

26. What, according to Thomson, would, in the most general terms, make abortion wrong?

killing unjustly

27. Explain the Good Samaritan, the Minimally Decent Samaritan, and their relevance for abortion.

good Samaritan: Goes far out of their way at great cost.

minimally decent Samaritan: Does the bare minimum expected.

relevance: Laws shouldn't force women to be "Good Samaritans" (carrying a pregnancy to term at great cost) when we don't force anyone else in society to do the same.

28. Explain Marquis's critique of the usual anti-abortion kind of argument

He thinks they focus too much on "biological" life (human cells) without explaining why that specific biology matters.

29. Explain Marquis's critique of the usual pro-choice kind of argument.

He thinks they focus too much on "personhood" (can the fetus think?), which would accidentally make it okay to kill infants or people with temporary brain damage.

30. Why, according to Marquis, is it wrong to kill adult human beings?

Because it robs them of a "Future Like Ours" (FLO)—all the experiences, activities, and enjoyments they would have had.

31. What are Marquis's arguments against the desire account of why killing is wrong?

Some say killing is wrong because we desire to live. Marquis says this is wrong; it's still wrong to kill a suicidal person who has lost the desire to live because they still have a valuable future.

32. What are Marquis's arguments against the discontinuation account of why killing is wrong?

Some say killing is wrong because it stops an ongoing life. Marquis says this is too focused on the past; the real tragedy is the loss of the future.

33. Explain the implications of Marquis's theory for the issue of contraception.

Marquis says contraception is okay because there is no identifiable individual yet. A sperm or egg alone doesn't have a "Future Like Ours"—only the combined zygote does.

34.  Outline Stoic value theory

• The only true good = virtue

• The only true bad = vice

• Everything else is an indifferent (doesn’t make you better or worse as a person) 

• Examples of indifferents: wealth, pleasure, health, status, reputation

35. Marcus claims that the external world is inert in relation to the soul. Why is this important?

Things happen to you, but they can’t touch your "soul" (character). Only your opinion about what happens can hurt you.

36. Why, according to Marcus, does the world repeatedly challenge us?

Life is like an "obstacle course." The world challenges us so we can "work out" our virtue. Without obstacles, you can't be brave or patient.

37. Marcus claims: physical substance is compliant and plastic. What does this tell us of the soul?

If physical matter can be molded easily, your mind should be even more flexible. You can "shape" your reaction to any event.

38. What is Marcus’s “stripping exercise”? What is the purpose of it?

Mentally stripping things of their glamour and social prestige so you see them plainly for what they are and be less influenced by it.

39. What are the consequences of treating indifferent things as either good or bad?

we fall into the irrational passions called pathe (fear, distress, delight)

40. Marcus recommends we contemplate all time and existence. What is the purpose of doing that?

to gain perspective. It makes personal worries, fame, pleasure, and pain seem smaller, and helps us focus on the one thing that really matters; living virtuously in the present