Module 8 - Reproductive System Disorders

Testes

• Primary reproductive organs located in the scrotum 

• Produce sperm (spermatogenesis) 

• Secrete testosterone and other androgens 

• Optimal function requires temperature lower than body temperature 

Scrotum

• External sac that houses the testes 

• Provides temperature regulation for sperm production 

• Contains muscles that can raise or lower testes for thermoregulation 

Epididymis

• Coiled tubular structure attached to each testis 

• Provides site for sperm maturation and storage 

• Connects testes to vas deferens 

Vas Deferens

• Muscular tubes that transport sperm from epididymis to urethra 

• Forms part of the spermatic cord 

Prostate Gland

• Primary accessory sex gland in male dogs and cats 

• Produces seminal fluid components that nourish and transport sperm 

• Surrounds the urethra at the neck of the bladder 

Urethra

• Conducts both urine and semen 

• Extends from bladder through the prostate and penis 

Penis

• Male copulatory organ 

• Contains erectile tissue for breeding 

• In dogs, includes the os penis (bone) and bulbus glandis (for "locking" during breeding) 

Prepuce

• Protective fold of skin covering the penis when not erect 

Ovaries

• Paired primary reproductive organs 

• Produce oocytes (eggs) 

• Secrete hormones including estrogen and progesterone 

• Control reproductive cycles 

Oviducts

• Paired tubes extending from ovaries to uterine horns 

• Site of fertilization 

• Transport ova/embryos to uterus 

Uterus

• Bicornuate structure (two horns, one body) in dogs and cats 

• Receives, implants, and nourishes developing embryos 

• Expels fetuses during parturition 

• Undergoes cyclic changes in response to hormones 

Cervix

• Connects uterus to vagina 

• Controls entry into uterus 

• Creates barrier between uterus and vaginal environment 

• Dilates during estrus and parturition 

Vagina

• Tubular structure extending from cervix to vulva 

• Receives penis during copulation 

• Serves as birth canal during parturition 

Vulva

• External genitalia including the vestibule, labia, and clitoris 

• Provides protection for internal reproductive structures 

• Changes appearance during different reproductive stages 

Mammary glands

• Modified skin glands arranged in two parallel rows 

• Produce milk for nourishment of offspring 

• Respond to reproductive hormones 

• Dogs typically have 5 pairs; cats typically have 4 pairs 

Pregnancy

Cats can typically be diagnosed with pregnancy earlier (21-28 days after breeding) compared to dogs (25-36 days). Ultrasonography can detect pregnancy in both species around 20 days post-breeding, while radiography becomes useful after 45 days when fetal skeletal mineralization occurs. 

Dystocia

Causes:

• Fetal factors

  • oversized fetuses

  • fetal abnormalities (anasarca, hydrocephalus)

  • abnormal positioning

  • breech position is normal in dogs and cats

• Maternal factors

  • narrowed birth canal (development or trauma-related)

  • primary uterine intertia (lack of coordinated contractions)

  • secondary uterine intertia (exhaustion from prolonged labor)

Dystocia clinical signs

• Labor lasting longer than 4 hours without producing a fetus 

• Green vaginal discharge during parturition

• More than 1 hour elapsed between births 

• Straining without productive delivery 

• Maternal distress 

Dystocia diagnosis

• Physical examination with digital vaginal palpation 

• Radiography to evaluate:  

  • Fetal position 

  • Fetal size 

  • Number of remaining fetuses 

• Ultrasonography to assess:  

  • Fetal viability 

  • Signs of fetal distress 

Dystocia treatment

manual manipulation

• carefully dislodge fetus lodged in vaginal canal

medical management

• oxytocin administration

• calcium supplementation if hypocalcemia is present

surgical intervention

• cesarean delivery if medical treatment fails

• can be combined with OVH in non-breeding animals

dystocia client education

• Appropriate breeding practices (avoiding extremely disparate size matings) 

• Prepare a whelping box and accustom the animal to it before delivery 

• Ensure proper nutrition both before, during and after pregnancy 

• Supervise birthing but avoid creating stress

• Recognize when veterinary intervention is needed 

• Special care may be needed for neonates after cesarean delivery 

Eclampsia (Puerperal Tetany)

Cause

• Hypocalcemia due to:  

  • Heavy lactation demands 

  • Calcium-deficient diet 

  • Insufficient calcium mobilization from bones 

• Most common 2-3 weeks after whelping 

• More common in small breed dogs with large litters 

• Rare in cats compared to dogs 

Clinical signs of eclampsia

• Nervousness and restlessness 

• Salivation 

• Stiff gait progressing to ataxia 

• Muscle tremors 

• Hyperthermia 

• Tachycardia 

• Seizures in advanced cases 

Eclampsia Diagnosis

• Clinical signs in a lactating female 

• Low serum calcium levels 

• Response to calcium therapy 

• Ruling out other causes of neurological signs 

Eclampsia Treatment and prevention

Emergency treatment

• Slow intravenous administration of 10-20% calcium gluconate 

• Heart rate monitoring during administration 

• Stop infusion if bradycardia or arrhythmias occur 

Follow up care

• Oral calcium supplementation 

• Serum calcium monitoring throughout lactation 

• Weaning puppies/kittens or supplemental feeding if severe 

Prevention

• Adequate prenatal nutrition 

• Calcium supplementation during late pregnancy and lactation 

• Limit litter size in susceptible animals 

Eclampsia Client Education

• Eclampsia tends to recur in subsequent pregnancies 

• Affected animals may not be suitable for breeding 

• Importance of proper nutrition during pregnancy and lactation 

• Recognition of early signs requiring immediate veterinary attention

• Proper calcium supplementation protocols 

• Monitoring nursing frequency and duration 

Pyometra Causes

Progressive uterine disease related to hormonal influences

• repeated exposure to progesterone during estrous cycles

• cystic endometrial hyperplasia progressing to fluid accumulation

Secondary bacterial infection (most commonly E. Coli)

• other potential organisms: staph, streptococcus, klebsiella, pasteurella, proteus, moraxella

Risk factors:

• Middle aged to older females

• typically occurs within 60 days after estrys

• previous hormonal treatments (estrogen, progestins)

• Nullparity (never having given birth)

Pyometra clinical signs

• Vulvar discharge (open-cervix pyometra)

• May be absent in closed-cervix pyometra 

• Abdominal enlargement 

• Vomiting 

• Lethargy 

• Polyuria/polydipsia 

• Dehydration 

• Azotemia (elevated kidney values) 

• Fever 

Pyometra diagnosis

• Radiography: enlarged fluid-filled uterus 

• Ultrasonography: fluid-filled uterus (differentiates from pregnancy) 

• Laboratory findings:  

  • CBC: leukocytosis, neutrophilia with left shift, dehydration 

  • Possible nonregenerative anemia 

  • Serum chemistry: increased alkaline phosphatase, elevated proteins, increased BUN 

• Vaginal cytology: degenerative neutrophils, endometrial cells, bacteria 

• Bacterial culture and sensitivit

Pyometra client education

• Ovariohysterectomy is the definitive treatment and prevention 

• Early, aggressive treatment is essential 

• Significant mortality rate - even with proper treatment 

• High recurrence rate within 1 year if medical treatment only 

• Medical treatment more successful with open-cervix pyometra 

• Recognition of signs requiring immediate veterinary attention 

• Lifetime risk in intact females increases with age 

Pseudopregnancy in dogs and cats

Pseudopregnancy (also known as false pregnancy) is a physiologic syndrome characterized by signs mimicking those of normal pregnancy in non-pregnant female animals. This condition is fairly common in intact female dogs (bitches) but uncommon in female cats (queens).  

In dogs, pseudopregnancy represents an exaggeration of the normal hormonal changes that occur during the estrous cycle. While all non-pregnant bitches experience some degree of pseudopregnancy physiologically, only some display overt clinical signs.  

Pseudopregnancy causes

Hormonal mechanism:

• Abrupt drop in progesterone levels at the end of diestrus 

• Increased prolactin secretion playing a central role 

• All non-pregnant bitches are physiologically "pseudopregnant" but with variable intensity of signs 

• Can be triggered by ovariohysterectomy or ovariectomy during the luteal phase

Species differences

• Common in dogs, particularly in certain breeds 

• Rare in cats due to differences in reproductive physiology (induced ovulators) 

• More pronounced in nulliparous bitches (female that has never previously given birth)

Contributing factors

• Previous pseudopregnancy episodes increase risk of recurrence 

• Possible genetic predisposition 

• Stress or environmental factors may play a role 

• Individual sensitivity to hormonal fluctuations 

psuedopregnancy clinical signs

behavioral signs

• Restlessness and anxiety 

• Decreased activity 

• Anorexia

• Licking at abdomen 

• Aggression (may be protective) 

• Maternal behaviors:  

  • Nesting behavior 

  • "Mothering" of inanimate objects (carrying toys) 

  • Protective behavior over toys or bedding 

physical signs

• Weight gain

• Mammary gland enlargement 

• Lactation (milk production) 

• Mucoid vaginal discharge 

timing

• Usually develops 6-12 weeks after estrus in dogs 

• Typically lasts 1-3 weeks if untreated 

• Signs are self-limiting in most cases 

species differences

• Dogs typically show more pronounced signs 

• Cats rarely display overt pseudopregnancy symptoms 

pseudopregnancy diagnosis

Based primarily on:

• Compatible clinical signs in a non-pregnant intact female 

• History of recent estrus (approximately 2 months prior) 

• Physical examination findings 

• Ruling out actual pregnancy

Diagnostic approach

-No specific diagnostic tests available 

• Hormonal assays are non-diagnostic 

• Ultrasonography to rule out pregnancy 

• Radiography (after 45 days) can rule out pregnancy

pseudopregnancy treatment

Conservative management

• Most cases resolve without treatment 

• Avoidance of mammary stimulation 

• Mild water restriction 

• Diuretics in some cases 

• Prevention of self-stimulation (Elizabethan collar if necessary) 

Pharmacological intervention

• prolactin-inhibitng drugs

surgical management

• Ovariohysterectomy is the only permanent cure 

• Should be performed during anestrus 

• Surgery during luteal phase can induce pseudopregnancy 

psuedopregnancy client ed

• Explain that pseudopregnancy is a normal physiological process in dogs 

• Reassure that it is typically self-limiting 

• Explain the hormonal basis for the condition 

• Increased risk of mammary tumors in intact females 

• Discuss spaying as a permanent solution for non-breeding animals 

• Explain importance of timing spay surgery during anestrus 

• Review likelihood of recurrence in subsequent cycles 

• When to seek veterinary care:  

  • Severe behavioral changes affecting quality of life 

  • Excessive milk production leading to discomfort 

  • Signs persisting beyond 3 weeks 

  • Any indication of mammary infection 

Lactation Disorders

Causes

• Bacterial infection (often ascending through teat canal)

• Milk stasis

• Trauma to mammary glands

• poor hygeine

• stress

• Predisposing factors:

  • Agalactia (lack of milk production)

  • Malnutrition

  • Premature parturition

Clinical signs

• mammary discomfort and pain

• discolored milk (may be bloody or purulent)

• fever

• reluctance to allow nursing

• hard, hot mammary glands

• abscess formation in chronic cases

• systemic illness in severe cases

Diagnosis

• physical examination of mammary glands

• milk cytology

• bacterial culture and sensitivity

• complete blood count may show inflammation

Treatment

• antimicrobial therapy

  • broad spectrum antibiotics

• supportive care

  • warm compress to affected glands

  • gentle expression of affected glands

  • protection from trauma

  • pain management

Client education

• mastitis may recur in subsequent lactations

• good hygeine during lactation

• puppies and kittens should not nurse from affected gland but can from unaffected teats

• hand feeding techniques if necessary

• signs of worsening infection require immediate veterinary care

Prostatic disease

represents an important category of male reproductive disorders with significant differences in prevalence between dogs and cats

prostate gland

• located caudal to the bladder and encircling proximal urethra

• produces fluid that serves as a transport medium for sperm

prostatic diseases are far more common in dogs

Prostate disorders causes

Benign prostatic hyperplasia:

• Associated with aging process in intact male dogs (as early as 2.5 years) 

• Caused by altered androgen-estrogen ratio 

• Requires the presence of functional testes 

• Normal age-related change in dogs 

• Rare in cats due to different prostatic structure and hormone responsiveness 

Prostatitis

• Bacterial infection through the urinary system or direct infection 

• Common causative organisms:  

  • Escherichia coli (most frequent) 

  • Other gram-negative bacteria (Proteus, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas) 

  • Gram-positive bacteria (Streptococcus, Staphylococcus) 

  • Brucella canis 

• Affects sexually mature male dogs 

• May be acute or chronic 

• Predisposed by prostatic hyperplasia 

• Extremely rare in cats 

Prostatic Abscessation

• Severe form of bacterial prostatitis 

• Development of pockets of purulent exudate within the gland 

• Secondary to chronic bacterial infection 

• May occur following trauma or obstruction 

• Almost exclusively seen in dogs 

Prostatic neoplasia

• Uncommon in dogs but can develop in both intact and neutered males 

• All prostatic tumors in dogs are malignant 

• Adenocarcinoma is the most common type 

• Rarely reported in cats but can occur 

benign prostatic hyperplasia clinical signs

• Often asymptomatic 

• Tenesmus (straining to defecate) 

• Symmetrically enlarged, non-painful prostate on palpation 

• May cause hematuria or urethral discharge 

prostatitis clinical signs

• Acute form:  

  • Anorexia 

  • Fever 

  • Lethargy 

  • Stiff gait in rear limbs 

  • Caudal abdominal pain 

  • Possible septicemia in severe cases 

• Chronic form:  

  • May be asymptomatic 

  • History of recurrent urinary tract infections 

  • Intermittent urethral discharge 

  • Occasional discomfort 

prostatic abscessation clinical signs

• Tenesmus 

• Urethral discharge 

• Lethargy 

• Pain 

• Vomiting 

• Hematuria 

• Fever 

• Depression 

• Potential for peritonitis if abscess ruptures 

prostatic neoplasia clinical signs

• Similar to other prostatic diseases initially 

• Progressive weight loss 

• Symmetrically or asymmetrically enlarged prostate 

• Potential metastasis to regional lymph nodes, lungs, and bones

• Increased frequency of urination 

• Poor response to antibiotics or castration 

• Lumbar pain from metastasis 

prostate disease diagnosis general approach

• Thorough physical examination including rectal palpation 

• Urinalysis and urine culture 

• Complete blood count and serum chemistry 

• Imaging (radiography, ultrasonography) 

• Prostatic fluid cytology and culture 

• Biopsy for definitive diagnosis 

benign prostatic hyperplasia diagnosis

• Physical examination reveals symmetrically enlarged, non-painful prostate 

• Biopsy provides the only accurate diagnosis 

• Ruling out other prostatic conditions 

prostatitis diagnosis

• Urinalysis: blood, increased white blood cell count, bacteria 

• Urine culture to identify causative organism 

• Prostatic wash or massage for cytology and culture 

• Ultrasonography 

prostatic abscessation diagnosis

• CBC may show leukocytosis or normal WBC count 

• Elevated liver enzymes 

• Hypoglycemia and hypokalemia in severe cases

• Prostatic aspiration reveals hemorrhagic, purulent, septic material 

• Ultrasonography sProstatic Neoplasia:  

• Often requires biopsy for definitive diagnosis 

• Radiographs to check for metastasis 

• Prostatic wash cytology may reveal neoplastic cells 

• Advanced imaging (CT, MRI) for staging 

benign prostatic hyperplasia treatment

• Castration (results in 70% decrease in size within 7-14 days) 

Medical options:  

• Low-dose estrogen therapy  

• Prevention through early castration 

• Note: Medical treatments provide temporary improvement; condition recurs when therapy ends

prostatitis treatment

• extended antibiotic therapy based on culture and sensitivity:  

  • Acute form: 28 days 

  • Chronic form: at least 6 weeks 

• Castration may be beneficial 

• Prostatectomy in severe cases (difficult surgery with serious side effects)

prostatic abscessation treatment

• Surgical drainage (treatment of choice) 

• Castration 

• Appropriate antibiotic therapy 

• Intravenous fluid therapy for sepsis or peritonitis 

• Regular monitoring and follow-up 

prostatic neoplasia treatment

• Generally poor prognosis 

• Palliative treatment options:  

  • Prostatectomy (rarely curative) 

  • Radiation therapy 

  • Chemotherapy 

  • Pain management

client education - prostate disease

benign prostatic hyperplasia

• Early castration prevents this condition 

• Castration effective even in older animals 

• Drug therapy results in temporary improvement only 

• Regular monitoring for progression 

• Be aware of potential side effects of estrogen therapy (bone marrow suppression) 

Prostatitis

• Long-term antibiotic therapy is essential for control 

• Monitoring with prostatic fluid cultures and examinations needed during extended antibiotic use 

• Castration may be beneficial 

• Importance of completing the full course of antibiotics 

• Disease may become chronic if inadequately treated 

Prostatic abscessation

• Treatment is expensive and challenging 

• Survival rate approximately 50% after 1 year 

• Close monitoring required post-treatment 

• Risk of recurrence 

• Potential for life-threatening complications 

Prostatic neoplasia

• Poor prognosis in most cases 

• Treatment mainly palliative rather than curative 

• Quality of life considerations important 

• Regular monitoring for pain management 

• Focus on comfort and maintaining normal activities as long as possible 

priapism

persistent penile erection without sexual stimulation

paraphimosis

inability to retract the penis into the preputial sheath

priapism in dogs

In dogs, priapism is occasionally observed and while often primarily a concern for embarrassed owners, it can cause considerable pain and potentially lead to tissue necrosis requiring amputation if left untreated. 

Species differences:  

• Cats may develop priapism following castration (not common in dogs) 

• Dogs have an os penis (penis bone) which can fracture and cause paraphimosis 

• Different anatomical structures of the prepuce between species 

priapism causes

• Myelopathy (spinal cord disorders) 

• Drug reactions 

• Vascular abnormalities 

• Penile masses 

• Trauma 

• Castration (specific to cats) 

• Idiopathic (no identifiable cause) 

• Excessive parasympathetic stimulation 

• Impaired venous drainage from the penis 

• Classification:  

  • Nonischemic priapism (more common in both species) 

  • Ischemic priapism (less common but more serious) 

priapism clinical signs

• Persistent erection without sexual stimulation 

• Potentially painful condition 

• Penile congestion 

• Possible discoloration of penile tissue 

• Discomfort during urination 

• Reluctance to move 

• In severe cases:  

  • Tissue drying 

  • Progressive necrosis if untreated 

  • Gangrene in advanced cases 

priapism diagnosis

• History to identify potential causes 

• Physical examination showing persistent erection 

• Differentiation between nonischemic and ischemic forms:  

  • Ultrasonography of the penis (confirmatory test) 

  • Color Doppler to assess blood flow 

• Neurological examination if myelopathy suspected 

• Toxicology if drug reaction suspected 

• Blood work to rule out systemic causes 

priapism treatment

• Pain control-Gabapentin:  

• Terbutaline 

• Pseudoephedrine (extra label use):  

****Consider switching medications if no response after several days 

Surgical options:

• For ischemic priapism in cats: penile amputation and perineal urethrostomy 

• Surgical incisions in tunica albuginea with heparinized saline irrigation 

• In severe necrosis: amputation of penis and prepuce with urethrostomy 

• Duration assessment is critical for prognosis 

• Evaluation of tissue damage extent 

• Urinary function assessment 

priapism client education

• Importance of seeking prompt veterinary attention 

• Explanation that this is a medical emergency 

• Discussion of treatment options and prognosis 

• Follow-up care requirements 

paraphimosis cause

self mutilation

constriction by hair ring

fracture of os penis

trauma

strangulation with rubber band or string

excessive sexual excitement without return to flaccid state

preputial abnormalities

neurologic disorders

paraphimosis clinical signs

• Exposed penis unable to retract into preputial sheath 

• Progressive swelling of exposed tissue 

• Drying of penile tissue 

• Potential tissue trauma 

• Pain and discomfort 

• Licking or biting at the affected area 

• Difficulty urinating 

• Signs of progressive tissue deterioration:  

  • Discoloration 

  • Necrosis 

  • Contamination 

• Time-dependent severity:

  • Acute presentation may be less severe 

  • Chronic exposure leads to progressive tissue damage

  • Increasing pain and systemic illness with prolonged exposure 

paraphimosis diagnosis

• Visual confirmation of exposed, non-retractable penis 

• Assessment for constricting objects (hair rings, foreign material) 

• Evaluation of tissue viability 

• Examination for underlying causes:  

  • Trauma 

  • Fractures of os penis (radiography) 

  • Congenital abnormalities 

paraphimosis treatment

acute

• Sedation 

• Removal of causative agents (hair rings constricting material) 

• Cold hypertonic glucose solution to reduce swelling 

• Gentle cleaning of penile tissue 

• Lubrication and manual replacement into prepuce 

• Purse-string suture placement at preputial opening (temporary)  

chronic or non-responsive cases

• Chronic or non-responsive cases:  

  • Surgical intervention 

  • Penile amputation and urethrostomy in severe cases 

  • Reconstructive procedures for preputial abnormalities 

• Duration assessment is critical for prognosis 

• Evaluation of tissue damage extent

• Urinary function assessment

paraphimosis client education

• Emergency nature of the condition 

• Time-dependent complications 

• Importance of not attempting forceful reduction at home 

• Potential for serious tissue damage if left untreated 

• Prevention strategies:  

  • Regular grooming for long-haired animals 

  • Monitoring during periods of sexual excitement 

  • Vigilance for abnormal penile exposure 

Brucellosis

significant infectious disease of zoonotic importance that affects multiple species, including dogs. The disease is primarily caused by Brucella canis in canines, though dogs can occasionally become infected with other Brucella species through exposure to infected domestic production animals. 

Unlike in dogs, brucellosis in cats is extremely rare, with very few documented cases reported in the literature. This significant species difference likely relates to variations in susceptibility, exposure patterns, and physiological responses to Brucella organisms.  

brucellosis cause

• Brucella canis - primary agent in dogs 

• Small, intracellular, gram-negative, non-spore-forming, aerobic coccobacillus 

• Dogs can occasionally be infected with other Brucella species:  

  • Dogs are the preferred host for B. canis 

brucellosis mode of transmission

• Venereal transmission (major route) 

• Ingestion of contaminated materials 

• Contact with aborted tissues or vaginal fluids through broken skin 

• Conjunctival and oronasal exposure to:  

  • Infected milk 

  • Seminal fluids 

  • Urine 

• Aerosolization (reported in kennel and laboratory settings) 

• Fomite transmission under certain conditions 

brucellosis pathophysiology

• Organism is taken up by reticuloendothelial system 

• Remains intracellular and travels to lymph nodes, spleen, and liver 

• Bacteremia occurs 1-4 weeks after exposure 

• Typically wanes after 3-4 months but can persist up to 18 months 

• May wax and wane for years 

• Modes of transmission include reproductive tissues:  

  • Testicles 

  • Prostate 

  • Epididymis 

  • Uterus 

  • Placenta 

brucellosis clinical signs

• Infertility 

• Abortion (typically late term, 45-55 days, but can occur at any stage) 

• Stillbirth 

• Placentitis 

• Metritis (females) 

• Epididymitis (males) 

• Prostatitis (males) 

• Orchitis (males) 

• Disease may remain subclinical for years in:  

• Individuals with no reproductive activity 

• Spayed or neutered animal 

brucellosis non-reproductive manifestations

• Can cause Ocular/MS abnormalities  

brucellosis diagnosis

• Gold standard:  

  • Demonstration of B. canis through culture or PCR assay 

• Sample sources include reproductive tissues, aborted materials, vaginal secretions, semen, milk, and blood 

• Challenges with direct detection:  

  • Biosafety concerns (zoonotic potential) 

  • Potential false negatives due to intermittent bacteremia,  

• Serological testing methods:  

  • Often used in conjunction with culture or PCR for diagnosis, screening, and surveillance

brucellosis treatment

• No treatment is completely effective at eliminating B. canis infection 

• Euthanasia often recommended due to zoonotic potential 

If euthanasia declined

• Treatment and monitoring are lifelong 

• Neutering is required 

• Antimicrobial treatment for minimum of 2-3 months 

• Isolation requirements (vary by state) 

Regulatory considerations

• B. canis infection is not nationally reportable in US 

• Reportable in many states 

• Treatment recommendations often made by state/local authorities 

brucella canis client education

• Zoonotic potential:  

  • B. canis is transmissible to humans through direct contac 

  • Endemic in certain parts of the world 

  • Infection in dogs likely underrecognized and underreported 

  • Complete elimination of infection is unlikely 

  • Treatment is expensive and requires long-term commitment 

  • Importance of proper PPE and cleaning protocols 

  • Isolation requirements for infected animals 

  • Discussion of household risk factors, especially for immunocompromise individuals 

  • Infected animals should not be used for breeding 

brucellosis nursing note

Nursing Note: Brucellosis Precautions 

When handling suspected canine brucellosis cases, staff must wear appropriate PPE as this is a zoonotic disease transmissible through contact with reproductive tissues, blood, and other body fluids. Isolate and label all infectious materials as biohazards, disinfect surfaces thoroughly, and house suspected cases in appropriate areas with restricted access and dedicated equipment while ensuring staff promptly report any potential exposures. ;p