Research methods

What is a research aim?

A general statement that describes the purpose of an investigation

What is a hypothesis?

A testable statement of fact that's either true or false

What do all research studies start with?

A null hypothesis

What are the 3 things every hypothesis needs?

1. The IV and the DV

2. NULL, DIRECTIONAL, NON-DIRECTIONAL

3. Both IV and DV are operationalised

What does operationalised mean?

When something is specific and measurable

What are the three types of hypothesis?

1. The NULL hypothesis

2. The NON DIRECTIONAL hypothesis

3. The DIRECTIONAL hypothesis

What is a NULL hypothesis?

There is no difference between... and...

What is the NON - DIRECTIONAL hypothesis?

there is a difference between... and...

What is a directional hypothesis

Predicts the direction of a relationship

What is an experiment?

A research study which allows us to draw casual conclusions because of variable is systematically manipulated so we can observe its impact on another variable

What is the independent variable?

The experimental conditions you manipulate

What is the dependent variable?

The behaviour you measure

What is a confounding variable?

A factor that varies systematically with the IV and affects the DV

What is an extraneous variable?

A factor that varies randomly and can affect the DV

What is a WEIRD sample?

White

Educated

Industrialised

Rich

Democratic

What is face validity?

The extent to which a study appears to measure what it claims to measure

What is concurrent validity?

The extent to which the results of a test match the results of another similar test

What is construct validity?

The extent to which the variables (specific and measurable) reflect the idea/theory

What is ecological validity?

The extent to which the study reflects genuine behaviour as it occurs in the real world

What is mundane realism?

The extent to which the TASK/ scenario in a study reflects situations found in the real world

What is cultural validity?

The extent to which findings of the study reflect behaviours in other cultures

What is population validity?

The extent to which findings can be generalised to the population as a whole (age groups and gender)

What is temporal validity?

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other historical times and eras

What is predictive validity?

The extent to which findings of the study/test accurately predict future behaviours or outcomes

What is validity?

Truth about behaviour

What is reliability?

Consistency (in measuring and replicating experiments

When does a study have high validity?

It really measures what it claims to measure and describes real world behaviour not just 'lab' behaviour

What does bias mean?

Any factor or variable that twists the truth about a behaviour

What are the main examples of bias?

PPs not representing the target population

Letting PPs guess your study and so they change their behaviour to suit it

Investigator effects

Order effects

Not representing real life tasks

What are investigator effects?

Investigators design being their own

Investigators interacting with PPs

What are order effects?

Whether PPs have had practice (the order in which they take their test)

What are objective measures?

Using objective tools not human judgement to measure behaviour

What is an example of a standardised procedures and briefings?

Give all PPs exactly the same instructions and treatment therefore there's no inconsistency

Why are replicate experiments good?

Repeating studies ensures we consistently get the same results

What is test re test?

Measure PP once, then again a while later, PPs results should be consistent for them to be relied on

What are the ways to ensure reliability in research?

Objective measures

Standardise procedures and briefings

Replicate experiments

Test- retest

Pilot study to improve self report

Inter-rater reliability correlation

Inta-rater reliability correlation

Pilot study to improve self- report

check questions in questionnaires/interviews are consistently interpreted the same way by testing it on a small group of PPs

inter-rater reliability correlation

get 2 researchers to independently score PPs behaviour and compare results

intra-rater reliability correlation

get each observer to score the same behaviour more than once to check consistency within themselves

What is an experimental design?

The different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

what are the three main ways we can allocate PPs to IV conditions?

1. independent groups

2. matched pairs

3. repeated measures

what is meant by PP variables?

IQ, eyesight, concentration

what are the key issues with experimental design?

- order effects

- pp variables

- number of PPs requires for the study

- how time consuming

- ethics

what is an independent group design?

PPs are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition

what are the advantages of independent group designs?

1. avoids order effects

2. not time consuming for PPs

what are the disadvantages of independent group designs?

1. more PPs required

2. PPs variables may get bias results (even with random allocation)

3. some conditions we can't ethically allocate to PPs (they need to choose as it might cause harm to them or the environment around them)

what is a repeated measure design?

the same PPs take part in all IV conditions of the experiment

what are the advantages of repeated measure designs?

- fewer PPs are required

- no PP variables (pps remain the same

what are the disadvantages of repeated measure designs?

- order effects

- test materials used to measure DV need to be comparable for a fair test

What is counterbalancing?

To smooth out the order effects for each PP the researcher controls the order of the conditions for the PPs

What is a matched pairs design?

pairs of PPs are matched in terms of key variables and one member from each pair is placed in each group at random

what is meant by key variables?

IQ, age, etc

what are the advantages of matched pair designs?

- reduces PP variables

- avoids order effects

- useful where only 1 IV condition is possible per PP

what are the disadvantages of matched pair designs

- very time consuming

- impossible to match people exactly

what are the sampling methods?

- opportunity sample

- volunteer sample

- random sample

- stratified sample

- systematic sample

What is an opportunity sample?

Selecting anyone who happens to be willing and available to take part in the experiment

what are the strengths of opportunity sampling?

- quick

- easy to carry out

what are the limitations of opportunity sampling?

- researcher bias

- unrepresentative of target population (low population validity

what is volunteer sampling?

PPs select themselves for the experiment

(offer to take part)

what are the strengths of volunteer sampling?

easy to get PPs

what are the limitations of volunteer sampling?

low population validity

what is a random sample

every member of target population has an equal chance of being selected

what are the strengths of random sampling?

high population validity generalised to the target population

what are the limitations of random sampling

- difficult to conduct

- time consuming

- people might be unwilling to take part

What is stratified sampling?

Dividing the population into subgroups then selecting a sample from each of these groups at random

What are the strengths of stratifies sampling?

High population validity due to being random

what are the limitations of stratified sampling?

- time consuming

- PPs may be unwilling to take part

what is systematic sampling?

use of a predetermined system every nth

what are the strengths of systematic sampling?

fairly high population validity

what are the limitations of systematic sampling?

important characteristics of the target population may be missed

what are the types of random techniques?

1. lottery method

2. random number table

3. random number generator

what's the method for the lottery method?

1. names of all individuals in target populating go into a hat

2. pull out one name flip a coin to see which group they are allocated to

3. do the same for the next group

4. continue to pull out the rest of the names and allocate groups until there is a sufficient number of PPs

what is the method for the random number table?

1. all names of PPs are assigned a number

2. blindly place finger on spot on the table

3. read 2 digits at a time and allocate PPs to a group

4. identify next PP unit you have sufficient numbers

what is the method for the random number generator?

1. all names are assigned a number

2. use an app to get a random number between 1-100

3. allocate alternate PPs to study conditions

4. continue until you have sufficient numbers

features of a lab experiment

- controlled situation

- manipulation of IV to see effect on DV

- researcher chooses which PPs get to do which conditions

What are the strengths of lab experiments?

High degree of control (can replicate to check results)

High internal validity

Cause and effect can be established

what is cause and effect?

A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another

Limitations of lab experiments

- can lack ecological validity

- high chance of demand characteristics

features of a field experiment

- natural environment where behaviour normally takes place

- manipulation of IV to see effect on DV

- researcher chooses which PPs get to do which conditions

Strengths of field experiments

- higher level of ecological validity

- reduced demand characteristics

- researcher can still draw cause and effect conclusions

limitations of field experiments

- less control over extraneous variables

- lower level of replication

features of natural experiments

- everyday environment or lab experiment

- no manipulation of variables (natural occurring)

Strengths of natural experiments

- high level of ecological validity

- reduced demand characteristics

- able to study situations which may be unique or unethical to randomly assign pps to conditions of the IV

limitations of natural experiments

- major issues of confounding variables (IV can't be completely isolated)

- less control over extraneous variables

- caution can't be established

features of a quasi experiment

- may be everyday environment or lab setting

- IV is an internal trait (birth characteristics) of the PPs

What are the strengths of quasi experiments

High ecological validity

Reduces demand characteristics

limitations of quasi experiments

- less control over confounding and extraneous variables

- caution can't be established

what is the difference between quasi and natural experiments?

quasi is random

What does ethical mean?

Based on the moral code of right and wrong

define an issue

conflict between two interests

What is an ethical issue?

When a conflict exists between the rights of the participant and the aims of the research

What is a pilot study?

A trial run carried out before the main investigation on a small number of different participants.

What is qualitative data?

non-numerical data/descriptive data

What is quantative data?

numerical data

What are the 'guiding principles'?

1. Respect for one dignity

2. Competence (high standards of professional work)

3. Responsibility (to protect clients, the public and science's reputation)

4. Integrity (honest research and reporting)

What is informed consent?

Telling PPs the true aim of the study, what will happen and what will be expected of them

Any risks/benefits explained in advance

Problems of Informed Consent

- researchers don't want demand characteristics

- researchers can't always predict the risks/benefits in advance

right to withdraw

- pps must know at the beginning of the study that they can leave at any time and can withdraw their data

- must be offered when asked for informed consent

what are the problems of having the right to withdraw?

- loss of valuable data which can lower validity of results

- pps who withdraw may bias the sample and make it less representative

- pps may wish to withdraw but not say so as they fear they might 'ruin the study'

deception

- not telling pps the whole truth about the experiment

- debrief afterwards must be given and concerns discussed