APES SUPER STUDY SET

A 99% complete study guide for the APES exam

Biomes

a broad, regional type of ecosystem characterized by distinctive climate and soil conditions and a distinctive kind of biological community adapted to those conditions.

Boreal Forest (Taiga)

located in high latitudes, 50-60 N
low percipitation, low species diveristy and richness, low annual temperatures that promote permafrost, poor soil quality
evergreen coniferous trees and medium/small animals
Biggest threat is logging, lesser but still threatening is mining for natural gas and oil

Temperate Rainforest

warm summers, cool winters, adequate rainfall, much more species rich and diverse than taiga, poor soil
Biggest threat is logging of old growth trees

Temperate Seasonal (Deciduous) Forest

strong species richness, low percipitation, on the warmer side with warm summer and cooler winters, fertile soil
deciduos trees: trees that drop their leaves every year
Logging, clearing land for agriculture, and urbanization

Tropical Rainforest

high productivity, high rainfall, nutrient poor soil, close to the equator, most biodiverse biome, VERY productive (NPP)
Agriculture (slash and burn), logging, grazing land

Shrubland (Chaparral)

Found in coastal regions with hot dry summers and cool (mild) moist winters
very prone to frequent natural fires, relatively unfertile soil
Human development and livestock grazing

Temperate Grassland

found in the north, large seasonal variability in teperatures, relatively low percipitation, mostly grasses with few/no trees

Savanna

found in the south, warm temperatures and seasonal rainfall,mixture of grasses and sparse trees

Desert

hot and dry, low species richness, poor soil

Tundra

low NPP, low species richness, cold and dry, disturbances have a severe affect due to slow growth, permafrost freezes green house gases
oil and natural gas exploration

threats to water biomes

eutrophication, acid mine drainage, sediment pollution, diversion of water for human use, construction of dams, wastewater release, sewage, overfishing

coastal zone (saltwater biome)

shallow, close to shore, light rich, nutrient poor,

lakes and ponds (freshwater)

littoral: shallow ends of lake with rooted vegetation, lots of productivity and biodiversity
limnetic: open water
profundal: where light cannot penetrate

What factors define a flowing freshwater biome

upstream vs downstream
amount of canopy cover (temperature)
depth, velocity, volume
turbidity (cloudiness)
salinity

Floodplain

the area on either side of a river that will flood on a regular or occasional basis
usually more fertile- water goes up, leaves nutrient rich sediemnt

water table

the upper surface of underground water

what factors define a saltwater marine biome

depth, light, nutrient availability, salinity, communities present (open ocean vs tidal)

ocean zones

pelagic: open water
photic: where light reaches
batheal: less light
abyssal: no light
benthic: the bottom/sea floor regardless of depth
coastal: on the coast

Marshland

coastal wetland, brackish (A mixture of fresh and salt water, typically found where rivers enter the oceans), soil saturated with water most of the year, orgnaisms are adapted to rising and falling tides, dominated by grasses
helps clean the water, filtering water before it reaches the ocean

Estuaries

where a flowing freshwater stream/river meets the ocean, brackish water, tidal cycles affect depth and salinity, EXTREMELY fertile, high NPP and species richness, known as "nature's nursery"

basic organisms in marine biome

plankton: producers
nekton: free swimming fish, consumers
benthos: bottom dwellers, scavengers/decomposers

eutrophic lake

Lake with a large or excessive supply of plant nutrients, mostly nitrates and phosphates
dense fish populations, shallow, gentle sloped shores

ogliotrophic lake

nutrient poor, deep, steep sloped shore, low fish/plankton concenrations

lake circulation

nutrients up, oxygen down
thermocline: uneven temperature distribution in lake

watershed

an area or ridge of land that separates waters flowing to different rivers, basins, or seas, that will all end up in the same location, like a funnel
watersheds are divided by divides and can differ depending on their area, length, slope, soil, vegetation types, and divides with adjoining watersheds

drainage basin

area in which water pools together at single point before entering another body of water

river delta

a triangular area of sediment deposited at the mouth of a river

abiotic factors

Temperature/sunlight
Salinity of soil/water
pH of soil/water
Precipitation

limiting factor

Any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the existence, numbers, reproduction, or distribution of organisms.

resource/niche partitioning

using reosurces in different ways, places, or times
reduces the negative impact of competition on survival

symbiosis

different species living in close association with one another

parasitism

+/-

mutualism

+/+

commensalism

+/0

amensalism

-/0

barrier islands

thin strips of sediment running parallel to the shore, protect mainland from floods

ecotone

a transitional zone from one ecosystem to another
High biodiversity, high productivity
Contains mixture of species from both ecosystems

gross primary productivity

rate at which an ecosystem's producers convert solar energy to chemical energy and biomass (via photosynthesis)

net primary productivity

rate of photosynthesis MINUS rate of energy use via respiration
NPP= GPP-R

first law of thermodynamics

Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.

second law of thermodynamics

whenever energy is transferred, some of it will be lossed through heat

phosphorus cycle

a phosporus containing rock is weathered down and releases its P into the soil. Plants take up the P and assimilate, using it to build plant tissues. Animal eats the plant and consumes the P inside the plant. The animal excretes and P returns to the soil. Water runs ALOT of it off into the ocean.
happens very slowly, no atmospheric component
-phosporus soluble in water
- phosphate containing fertilizers disturbs the cycle

nitrogen cycle

nitrogen fixation: microbes in the soil convert N2 into NH3 (ammonia)
nitrification: bacteria turns NH3 into NO3 (nitrates)
assimilation: plant absorbs the nitrates
ammonification: animal waste/humus is broken down into NH3
denitrification: NO3 is turned into N2 and released back into the atmosphere

carbon cycle

the healhier the ecosystem, the more carbon will be absorbed instead of emitted
carbon sinks: plants, ocean, soil

hydrologic cycle

powered by the sun
Evaporation, condensation, percipitation, percolation (movement of water through the soil), transpiration

human threats to biodiversity

habitatat destruction
invasive species
pollution
population
overharvesting

ecological tolerance

the specific range of abiotic conditions in which a species can survive.

biodiversity

the variety of life
species, ecosystem, genetic
more diveristy = more resilience

bottleneck affect

a decrease in population size will lead to a decrease in the gene pool, and a decrease in alleles

ecosystem services (benefits of biodiversity)

provisioning: provide for us, any type of benefit for people that can be extracted from nature, ex. food, drinking water, lumber, medicine, minerals, etc
regulating: processes that moderate natural phenomena, making eocsystemns resilient to change, ex. carbon storage, pollination, water/air filtration, erosion prevention, local climate regulation
cultural: spiritual, aesthetic, educational, ex. hikes, retreats, etc.
supporting: perform underlying processes, ex. photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, soil formation

island biogeography

the number of species on any island reflects a balance between the rate at which new species colonize it and the rate at which populations of established species become extinct
smaller islands wil have lower species diveristy, lower immigration rate, and higher extinction rates than bigger islands. Islands closer to the mainland will have higher rates of biodiversity and immigration

Natural disruptions

periodic: occur at some what of a regular frequency (annual rainy or dry seasons)
episodic: occasional with no regular frequency (hurricanes)
random: no partcular frequency (volcanic eruption)

adaptations

random genetic mutations -> natural selection

ecological succession

primary: no soil left (volcanic erruptions, glacier movement)
secondary: soil already there (fires, hurricane)

pioneer species

First species to populate an area during primary succession
ex. lichen, bacteria, moss
Lichen secrete acid that chemically weathers the rock, they then ide, decompose, and add organic material to the weathered rock thus creating soil

keystone species

a species on which other species in an ecosystem largely depend, such that if it were removed the ecosystem would change drastically.

trophic cascade

when one organism has a 'cascade' like affect on the rest of the ecosystem

indicator species

organism whose presence, absence or abundance reflects a specific environmental condition, gives information about overall helath/state of an ecosystem, usually an organism that is countabel/visible/detectable

predator-prey relationship

density independepent factors

factors that affect a population regardless of size
natural disasters, weather

density dependent factors

factors that affect a population depending on its size
predation, disease,

intraspecific competition

competition between members of the same species

interspecific competition

competition between members of different species

negative feedback loop

a balanced system

positive feedback loop

exponential growth or decline
ex. cancer and global warming

directional selection

a shift in the organisms' phenotype and genotype to one extreme due to a stressor

stabilizing selection

Shift that favors the mean.

disruptive selection

high reproduction at both extremes

speciation

Formation of new species

adaptive radiation

species founds a new place, takes up all available niches

fundamental niche

full range of resources and conditions a species could occupy
ex. ANY position on the team

realized niche

the resources of the fundamental niche a species TENDS to use
ex. Point guard

generalist species

Species with a broad ecological niche. They can live in many different places, eat a variety of foods, and tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions. Examples are flies, cockroaches, mice, and rats

specialist species

Species with a narrow ecological niche. They may be able to live in only one type of habitat, tolerate only a narrow range of climatic and other environmental conditions, or use only one type or a few types of food
less tolerant = less likely to survive

r vs k selected species

most organisms do not fit into the box of r or k startegists
r strategists= high growth rate
k strategists= slowly increasing populations that hover around carrying capacity (k)

fecundity

reproductive potential, describes reproductive charactarestics

survivorhsip curves

type 1 and 2 = k-strategists
type 3 = r-strategists

biotic potential

the maximum rate at which a populatioin could grow under ideal conditions
Growth factors: Favorable environment/space, Few competitors/defense mechanisms, Generalist/genetic diversity, Food supply, Disease/parasite resistant

population overshoot

there is a lag time between reproduction rate and reosurce consumption

factors that influence birth rate

Education Level, Child Labor Importance, Urbanization, Medical Advancements/helathcare availability, Employment, Marriage Age, Income, Development, CULTURAL NORMS, laws/policies (ex. China's one child policy), access to family planning, access to prenatal care, nutrition

age structure diagrams

0-14 years = pre-reproductive age
15-44 years=reproductive age
45-85+ years = post reproductive age

total fertility rate

the number of children an average woman will have

replacement level

2 children to replace 2 parents

crude birth rate

number of babies born per 1000 people in a single given year

Most populous countries

China, India, U.S.

affects Sudden Population Rises have on a Country

Increased unemployment
Increased pollution
Increased mortality rates (even with medical advances)
Lower survival rates
Decreased quality of life

infant mortality rate

number of children that die under 1 year old per 1000 births

Malthusian Theory

Starvation is the inevitable result of population growth, because the population increases at an exponential rate while food supply increases linear

demographic transition

'mechanization' also known as 'transitional'

developed vs developing countries

- levels of industrialization and income, nutrition, sanitation, eductaion, helath care, and clean water access will all be greater in developed countries
- TFR and IMF rates, population growth rates, and number of children in the workforce will be higher in developing countries

divergent plate boundary

Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

-rigid upper mantle and crust, where the tectonic plates are
- molten upper mantle where magma is found
-lithosphere moves over asthenosphere

plate tectonics

movement of giant rock plates (tectonic plates)

convergent plate boudary

->

island arcs

long chains of active volcanoes with intense seismic activity found along convergent tectonic plate boundaries (such as the Ring of Fire). Most island arcs originate on oceanic crust and have resulted from the descent of the lithosphere into the mantle along the subduction zone

transform/strike slip plate boundary

plates grind past eachother in opposite directions

plate boundaries

boundary and plate types determine the geologic features of the area

eathquakes

tectonic plates lock up, building up pressure and energy. When this pressure and energy is released, an earthquake occurs

tsunamis

a long and powerful sea wave caused by earthquakes or underwater landslides
destroy habitats, drowns species, uproots trees, contaminates water with saltwater and debris

fissure

hole between tectonic plates