republic - selections from I

When Cephalus says that someone approaching death 'is filled with foreboding,' what does the word 'foreboding' mean?

In this context, "foreboding" refers to an anticipatory dread or a fearful premonition of future evil. Specifically, Cephalus uses the term to describe the anxiety felt by individuals nearing death who fear that stories of divine punishment in Hades for past injustices might be true

In the passage where Cephalus discusses Themistocles' response to someone from Seriphus, what does the word 'retort' mean?

In this context, the word "retort" refers to a sharp, witty, or incisive reply made in response to an insult. Cephalus uses it to describe Themistocles' clever response to a man from Seriphus who claimed the statesman's fame was due to his city, Athens, rather than his own character.

When Socrates says 'justice seems to be some sort of craft of stealing—one that benefits friends and harms enemies,' which of the following is correct?

(a) Socrates is stating this as an absurd consequence that follows from Polemarchus's definition

(b) Socrates is stating this as his own view of what justice is

(c) Polemarchus endorses the claim that justice is a craft of stealing

(a) Socrates is stating this as an absurd consequence that follows from Polemarchus's definition

Question on: Republic -- selections from I by Plato   change

Here is an excerpt from the reading:

SOCRATES: A fine sentiment, Cephalus. But speaking of that thing itself, justice, are we to say it is simply speaking the truth and paying whatever debts one has incurred? Or is it sometimes just to do these things, sometimes unjust? I mean this sort of thing, for example: everyone would surely agree that if a man borrows weapons from a sane friend, and if he goes mad and asks for them back, the friend should not return them, and would not be just if he did. Nor should anyone be willing to tell the whole truth to someone in such a state.

CEPHALUS: That's true.

In this passage, Socrates presents the example of returning weapons to a friend who has gone mad. Who endorses the claim that one should NOT return the weapons—Socrates, Cephalus, or both?

In the provided passage, both Socrates and Cephalus endorse the claim that one should not return weapons to a friend who has gone mad. Socrates introduces the example by stating that "everyone would surely agree" that returning weapons to a friend who has lost their mind would not be a just act. Cephalus immediately confirms his agreement with this logic, responding, "That's true".

Polemarchus revises his definition of 'friend' during the discussion. Which of the following best captures the two definitions he offers? Select one option only.

(a) First definition: a friend is someone believed to be good. Second definition: a friend is someone who is actually good.

(b) First definition: a friend is someone believed to be good. Second definition: a friend is someone both believed to be good AND actually good.

(c) First definition: a friend is someone who is good. Second definition: a friend is someone who is both good and believed to be good.

(b) First definition: a friend is someone believed to be good. Second definition: a friend is someone both believed to be good AND actually good.

In the passage where Cephalus describes how other old people complain about old age, who endorses the view that old age itself is the cause of their misery—Cephalus or the other old people he describes?

The other old people whom Cephalus describes endorse the view that old age itself is the cause of their misery. They lament being deprived of youthful pleasures like sex and feasts, believing they lived well then but do not now. In contrast, Cephalus explicitly rejects this view, arguing that the true cause of unhappiness is a person's character and way of life, not their age.

Question on: Republic -- selections from I by Plato   change !!

Here is an excerpt from the reading:

SOCRATES: Indeed, it is. But tell me something else. What do you think is the greatest good you have enjoyed as a result of being very wealthy?

CEPHALUS: What I have to say probably would not persuade the masses. But you are well aware, Socrates, that when someone thinks his end is near, he becomes frightened and concerned about things he did not fear before. It is then that the stories told about Hades, that a person who has been unjust here must pay the penalty there—stories he used to make fun of—twist his soul this way and that for fear they are true... But someone who knows he has not been unjust has sweet good hope as his constant companion—a nurse to his old age, as Pindar says. For he puts it charmingly, Socrates, when he says that when someone lives a just and pious life,

Sweet hope is in his heart
Nurse and companion to his age
Hope, captain of the ever-twisting
Mind of mortal men.

How amazingly well he puts that.

In this passage, Cephalus quotes poetry by Pindar about hope being a companion to those who live justly. Does Cephalus endorse the sentiment expressed in Pindar's poetry, or is he merely reporting what Pindar said without committing himself to it? Write a paragraph explaining your answer with reference to specific textual evidence.

Cephalus fully agrees with Pindar’s poetry, and we can tell because he uses the poem as a core part of his own argument. He praises the words by calling them "charming" and exclaiming, "How amazingly well he puts that". Most importantly, he does not just repeat the lines; he uses them to support his own belief that living a just life brings "sweet good hope" as a companion in old age. By showing how this hope helps a "good and orderly" person face death without fear, Cephalus adopts Pindar's message as the foundation for his own view on the value of justice and wealth

After Socrates raises a problem about mistaken judgments, Polemarchus offers a refined definition of who counts as a friend. State this refined definition in your own words, being careful to include all the conditions Polemarchus specifies.

Polemarchus changes his definition to say that a true friend is someone who both appears to be good and is actually good. Under this new rule, if someone only seems good but is not really a good person, they are only "believed" to be a friend but do not actually count as one. This means a person must meet two conditions to be a friend: they must be thought of as good and they must truly be good in reality.

When Socrates asks whether 'friends' means those believed to be good or those who actually are good, Polemarchus answers 'Probably, one loves those one considers good and useful and hates those one considers bad.' Write a brief alternative answer that Polemarchus could have given that would have avoided the problem Socrates immediately identifies.

To avoid the problem Socrates identifies, Polemarchus could have answered that a friend is someone who is actually good, regardless of whether they are believed to be good or not. By defining a friend based on their true character instead of just a person's opinion of them, he would have prevented Socrates from arguing that we might accidentally help bad people just because we are mistaken about them. This would have kept the focus on the person's real nature rather than our own potentially wrong judgments

Question on: Republic -- selections from I by Plato   change

Socrates challenges Cephalus's definition of justice. Consider these two claims:

Claim A: It is always just to repay what one has borrowed.
Claim B: It is usually just to repay what one has borrowed.

Which claim does Socrates's counterexample (about the weapons) actually refute? Select one option only.

(a) Both Claim A and Claim B

(b) Only Claim B

(c) Only Claim A

(c) Only Claim A

In Cephalus's discussion of living a just life, he says wealth is valuable 'for a good and orderly one.' What does 'orderly' mean in this context?

In this context, the word "orderly" describes a person who has self-control and lives a balanced, disciplined life. Cephalus uses it to refer to someone who is not ruled by "insane masters" like wild desires or the physical pleasures of youth. To be orderly means a person is "contented" and has a character that makes even old age easy to bear. For such a person, wealth is useful because it helps them stay honest and avoid the fear of owing something to gods or other people as they approach death.

When Socrates asks about the greatest good of wealth, Cephalus answers by discussing how wealth helps one avoid injustice and thus face death without fear of punishment in the afterlife. Briefly state an alternative answer Cephalus could have given about the greatest good of wealth—one that would not have shifted the conversation toward justice and the afterlife.

Cephalus could have given is that wealth is valuable because it allows a person to live a life of physical comfort and luxury. Instead of talking about justice or the soul, he could have said the greatest good of being rich is having the money to enjoy fine food, expensive possessions, and constant leisure. He could also have focused on the simple security wealth provides, such as being free from the stress of hunger or not having a place to live. By focusing only on these physical pleasures or basic needs, he would have kept the conversation about money's practical uses rather than letting Socrates turn the topic toward morality and the afterlife.

At the end of Book I's selections, Socrates says 'if someone tells us it is just to give to each what he is owed, and understands by this that a just man should harm his enemies and benefit his friends, the one who says it is not wise.' Who is Socrates referring to as 'someone' who holds this view, and does Socrates endorse this view himself? Explain your answer.

Socrates is referring to the poet Simonides, whose ideas were defended in this discussion by Polemarchus. Socrates does not endorse this view. He concludes that it is never just to harm anyone, because hurting people makes them more unjust and therefore worse as human beings.

In this passage, Socrates repeatedly uses the word 'virtue' when discussing horses, dogs, and humans. What does 'virtue' mean as it is used here?

In this text, the word "virtue" means the special quality or excellence that makes a thing good and helps it do its job well. Socrates explains this by using three examples: for horses, it is the virtue that makes a horse good; for dogs, it is the virtue that makes a dog good; and for humans, justice is the specific human virtue. He argues that if you harm a living thing, you make it worse with respect to its specific virtue. Therefore, since justice is the virtue of being human, harming a person actually makes them more unjust

When Socrates mentions that Homer describes Autolycus as good at 'swearing false oaths,' what does 'oaths' mean?

In this text, "oaths" are serious promises or formal vows where a person often calls on a god to witness that they are telling the truth. When Socrates talks about "swearing false oaths," he means making a sacred promise while planning to lie or break it. He uses this example to show that Polemarchus's definition of justice is confusing and wrong. Socrates argues that if we follow that logic, a just person would be no different from a thief who is good at lying and stealing.

In the passage about harming horses, dogs, and humans, Socrates gets Polemarchus to agree to a general claim about what happens when people are harmed. Which of the following best captures this claim? (Select the ONE best answer.)

(a) When people are harmed, they may or may not become more unjust, depending on circumstances.

(b) When people are harmed, they sometimes become worse with respect to justice.

(c) When people are harmed, they necessarily become more unjust.

(d) When people are harmed by their enemies, they become more unjust.

(c) When people are harmed, they necessarily become more unjust.

In the passage where Socrates discusses stealing 'the enemy's plans and dispositions,' what does the word 'dispositions' mean?

In this context, the word "dispositions" refers to the way an army is arranged or positioned for battle. Socrates uses it when talking about a "good guardian of an army" who is also clever enough to "steal" or figure out the enemy's secret plans and military setups. He uses this term to show that being a good protector of something also makes a person good at taking it or tricking others. This helps him prove that Polemarchus's idea of justice leads to the strange conclusion that a just person is actually a type of thief.

In the final lines of the selection, consider these two claims:

Claim A: It is not the function of a just person to harm anyone.
Claim B: It is the function of an unjust person to harm people.

Based on what Socrates actually says, which claim(s)does he explicitly make? Select all that apply.

(a) Only Claim A

(b) Only Claim B

(c) Both Claim A and Claim B

(c) Both Claim A and Claim B

When Socrates says 'the masses do not accept it' and explains their view about wealth providing consolations in old age, which of the following is true? (Select all correct answers.)

(a) The masses endorse the view that wealth is the primary reason Cephalus bears old age easily

(b) Cephalus completely rejects the masses' view about wealth

(c) Socrates endorses the view that wealth is the primary reason Cephalus bears old age easily

(a) The masses endorse the view that wealth is the primary reason Cephalus bears old age easily

In the final argument against harming enemies, Socrates establishes two related claims:

Claim A: Harming people makes them more unjust.
Claim B: A just person cannot make people unjust.

Explain in your own words why both claims are needed for Socrates's conclusion that it is never just to harm anyone. Why doesn't Claim A alone suffice, and why doesn't Claim B alone suffice?

Both claims are needed to prove that a just person can never harm anyone. Claim A alone is not enough because it only tells us that harm makes people "more unjust"; it does not prove that a just person is forbidden from doing that. Claim B alone is not enough because it only says a just person cannot make someone unjust; it does not explain that "harming" is the specific action that causes someone to become unjust. When you put them together, the logic is complete: since harming people causes injustice (Claim A), and a just person is unable to cause injustice (Claim B), then a just person can never harm anyone

After the initial interpretation of Simonides is challenged, Polemarchus revises his understanding of what justice is. State this revised claim in your own words, being careful to specify what justice requires us to do toward different types of people.

Polemarchus updates his definition of justice to be more specific about who deserves good or bad treatment. He now argues that justice means doing good things for your friends, but only if they are actually good people. At the same time, he says justice requires harming your enemies, but only if they are actually bad people. This new version means that simply "seeming" to be a friend isn't enough; a person must truly be good in reality to earn help, and truly bad to deserve harm.

Near the end of the discussion with Polemarchus, Socrates draws a conclusion about what a just person can and cannot do. Write a paragraph stating this conclusion in your own words and explaining what logical scope it has—that is, does it apply to harming everyone, or only certain people? Your paragraph should begin with a clear topic sentence stating the conclusion.

Socrates concludes that it is never just for a person to cause harm to anyone at all. He argues that since justice is the specific "virtue" or excellence of human beings, harming a person necessarily makes them worse with respect to that virtue. Just as heat cannot be used to make something cold and musicians cannot use music to make someone unmusical, a just person cannot use the virtue of justice to make another person more unjust. This means the logical scope of his conclusion is universal; it applies to all people, whether they are friends or enemies, and whether they are good or bad. Therefore, Socrates rejects the idea that a just man should harm even a bad person who is an enemy.

Polemarchus takes over the discussion and endorses a claim attributed to Simonides about what justice is. State Simonides' claim (as Polemarchus initially presents it) in your own words.

When Polemarchus takes over the conversation from Cephalus , he initially defines justice by quoting the poet Simonides. According to Polemarchus's first explanation, Simonides' view is that justice means giving back to every person exactly what is owed to them. This definition suggests that being just is simply a matter of returning property or fulfilling a debt to the person who originally owned or lent it.

In the passage where Cephalus describes his view of old age and death, he makes a claim about the value of wealth. State this claim in your own words, being careful to preserve its logical structure—particularly, what wealth does and what this enables.

Cephalus argues that wealth is not valuable for everyone, but specifically for a "good and orderly" person. For such a person, the primary value of wealth is that it provides the means to avoid being unjust to others, even by accident. Specifically, having money prevents a person from having to lie or cheat, and it ensures they do not leave this life owing sacrifices to gods or money to other people. By enabling a person to settle all their moral and financial debts, wealth allows them to face death with "sweet good hope" rather than the "foreboding and fear" of being punished in the afterlife