History of Psychology - Exam 2

Edward Titchener

- considered himself descendent of Wundt (true Wundtian; PhD 1892; translated Principles)

- established largest doctoral program in US (at time) at Cornell

- first student: Mary Floy Washburn (PhD 1894; 1st US woman)

- The Experimentalists (men only)

- APA not 'scientific' (structuralistic) enough

- The Manuals - overview for how to teach and conduct experiments

1892

Titchener to Cornell

Structuralism

- 'to describe the structure of the mind in terms of the most primitive elements of mental experience'

- consciousness: sum total of mental experience at a given moment

- mind: accumulated experience of a lifetime

- primary tasks (what,how,why)

- 1. identify 'elements of the mind' (sensations, images, affectations)

- elements of perception, thought, & emotion

- properties: quality, intensity, duration, clearness, (extensity)

- 2. Synthesis: how do elements combine to form complex perceptions, ideas, and emotions?

- 3. Correspondence to physiology (ultimate explanations)

- explanations of causation between processes only lied in the nervous system

stimulus error

Confusing the mental process under study with the stimulus or object being observed; book for color/shape

introspection

- '...within the sphere of psychology, introspection is the final and only court of appeal... psychological evidence cannot be other than introspective evidence.' - Titchener

- strict guidelines for introspective reporting (intensive training required)

- concerns about 'stimulus error' (imposition of meaning, interpretation)

Margaret Floy Washburn

Student of Cattell, then Titchener; dissertation published by Wundt; studied animal behavior; first woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology; 2nd female president of the APA (1921); introspection by analogy

The Experimentalists

Titchener was all like, 'APA ain't got science', so he like, 'make my own gang, more science', made the group for bros only, cuz the presence of a ho draws chivalristic chatter talk, and he wanted that jive real candid and whatnot, candid like clinton, my man

James Angell

- papa functionalism, attacked structuralism

- studied with James & Dewey

- head of psychology faculty at U of Chicago

- president of APA

- functionalism

(a) studies mental operations, not elements

(b) seeks to identify the fundamental utilities of consciousness, as adaptive

(c) as psychophysical psychology, always physio substrates

- functionalism as organic, open

1896

Angell's article on reflexes as functional

1894

Angell in charge of psych faculty U Chicago

1906

Angell president of APA

Robert Sessions Woodworth

- PhD with Cattell in 1899, worked there rest of life

- didn't consider self functionalist

- Dynamic Psychology - eclectic, middle-of-the-road

- interested in motivation and how it interacted with processes

- challenged structuralism and behaviorism: S-O-R psychology

Functionalism

(a) studies mental operations, not elements

(b) seeks to identify the fundamental utilities of consciousness, as adaptive

(c) as psychophysical psychology, always physio substrates

- introduced experiments, IVs, DVs

- intensely broad in method and intent

- fostered applied psych

- focus on learning, as adaptiveness of consciousness must occur through it

1919

Woodworth publishes first personality test

Titchener legacy

- RECEPTION & LEGACY:

- primacy of laboratory methods and training

- lost ground to arguments that conscious experience (mind) cannot be broken down into individual elements

- Wurzburg school / act psychology

- Gestalt

- functional psychology

- objections to introspection as a method

- consciousness ultimately quesitoned as worthy topic of study

- "Titchener continues to influence how history is written, but now how psychology is done."

Exports of psychology

expertise, assessment, treatment

Origins of applied psychology

- surveys allowed:

- test of individual differences

- vocational predictions

- abnormal psych

- industrial - trash can, price setting

- Do all paths to applied psychology spring from James?'

from last time:

wundt>titchener>structuralism (basic)

james>hall (and others)>functionalism (applied)

- oversimplification: many of wundt's students moved to applied science

- cattel, witmer, scott, munsterberg

- distinction b/w basic & applied not clear cut

history of mental disorder

- a psychological or behavioral pattern generally associated with subjective distress or disability; not a part of normal development

- many consist of affective, behavioral, cognitive and perceptual components

- ancient greeks coined terms for melancholy, hysteria, and phobia

- Hippocrates ('all these things we endure from the brain..')

- powerful norms in villages and small towns; deviance not tolerated ('village idiot')

- 'treatment' (exclusion) was a family problem, not a community problem

beginning of psychiatry

-term coined in 1808 (by the german physician johann christian reil)

- 'medical treatment of the mind/soul'

- medical doctor specializing in psychiatry is a psychiatrist

- Asylums (e.g., bedlam)

- 1800: england and france combined had only a few hundred individuals in asylums

- by late 1890s and early 1900s: hundreds of thousands

- US 150k in mental hospitals by 1904

Emil Kraepelin

- studied with Wundt at Leipzig (MD 1878)

- believe mental disorders were all biological in nature ('nerves')

- SZ discovery, and Alzheimer's (ideas of disease classification)

Lightner Witmer

- undergrad with Cattell, doctorate with Wundt (1892)

- founded first psychological clinic at Penn (1896)

- psychological clinic journal (1907)

- coined term 'clinical psych' and described methods for practice and training of professionals

- legacy debated, as clinical did not continue to develop along lines suggested by his work (he was more school psych)

- focus on disruption of normal processes rather than disease (memory, speech)

- focus on children, development, and early intervention

- assessment as hypothesis, intervention as experiment

1896

first psychological clinic established at Penn by Witmer

1907

psychological clinic journal created by Witmer

Harlow Gale

Wundt's student - first attempt into business psychology, survey sent out in 1895, few responses, he gave up

Walter D. Scott

- Wundt student at northwestern

- Mahin from Chicago asks him to write for magazine, his writing turn into books:

- 1903 - theory of advertising

- 1908 - psychology of advertising

- mostly theoretical, but seen as chief expert

- consumer as suggestible: direct command and return coupons

Harry L. Hollingworth

- Cattell & Woodworth's student

- Advertising Men's League via Columbia, lectures published in 'Advertising and Selling' - 1913

- advertising/coupon effectiveness work with correlations

- also - what components led to buying behavior? - his theory became dominant

Hugo Münsterberg

- Harvard from Germany, replaces James with high praise

- popular psychologist, but disliked for german support

- abandoned lab at harvard for popular writing (magazines) and applied work, addressing things such as I/O, law psych, teaching, therapy, films...

- publisehd two books on business,

- 1913 published 'Psychology and Industrial Efficiency', addressing employee selection methods

- recommend govt. fund psychologists to be available nationally to businesses

- psychology of law work on witness credibility, false confessions, lie detection, jury deliberation

- case of Ivens being hung after false confession, dram with Munsterberg and James

- 'On the Witness Stand' published in 1908

1913

Munsterberg publishes 'Psychology and Business Efficiency'

Lillian Gilbreth

- cheapter by the dozen, on stamp, PhD from Brown

- consulting with husband, books on psychology of management

- efficiency movement

- time-motion studies to analyze components of job to advise increased efficiency

- work on homemaking and home management leads to design of homes (counter height, doors, trash can), for handicapped as well

- engineering psychology

- socieities for engineers

Edward K. Strong, Jr.

vocational guidance

- use of mental tests to match individuals with occupations

- influenced by munsterberg and hollingworth

Henry Herbert Goddard

- Vineland work on testing intelligence of retarded

- no progress, went to Europe, brought back Binet-Simon measuring scale for intelligence (1908)

Lewis Terman

- adapted Binet-Simon scale to Stanford-Binet test, leading instrument for tests until Wechsler

- researched normal populations too

- made popular IQ (mental age/chrono age ratio)

Army alpha and beta

- via Terman & Goddard at Vineland in 1917

- mass intelligence tests, beta for ESL/illiterate

1908

Simon-Binet IT to US

Freud self-assessment

- one of three 'great dethroners' of mankind

- copernicus, darwin, himself

Freud dissenting views

- hans eyesenk - new is not true, true is not new

- medawar - most stupendous intellectual confidence trick of 20th century

- crews - most overrated figure in history of science and medicine

- "Not even wrong." - Wolfgang Pauli

- not falsifiable

- When scientific predictions are made, they don't do well

- oral and anal characteristics

- role of weaning and toilet training

- success of psychoanalysis

Freud biosketch

(1856-1939):

- father jacob a wool mercahnt

- mother amalie (3rd wife, 20 years younger)

- 1st of 8 children

- partially assimilated, mostly secular Jew

- studied medicine at U of Vienna (1873-1881)

- studied with Franz Brentano

- Ernst Brucke (physiologist worked with Helmholtz)

- Josef Breur (physician/physiologist)

- Jean-Martin Charcot (neurologist)

Anna O.

Anna O. and birth of psychoanalysis

- Bertha Pappenheim

- teated for hysteria by Josef Breuer (symptoms include cough, paralysis of extremities on the right side of her body, and disturbance of vision, hearing, and speech, as well as hallucination and loss of consciousness)

- chimney sweeping, free associations, and the first talk therapy

- getting to the bottom of her problems allowed catharsis, and recovery

- later found to not have recovered, though subsequent recovery occurred

Psychoanalysis as theory of normal mind

id (pleasure principle), ego (reality principle), superego

- psychoanalytic divisions of the mind (freud's 'anatomy of mental personality')

- id: instinctual drives (begins at birth); does not distinguish between reality and fantasy; operates according to pleasure principle

- ego: develops out of the id in infancy, understands reality and logic, mediator between id and superego

- superego: internalization of society's moral standards responsible for guilt

Psychoanalysis as theory of neuroses

Anxieties:

- id (neurotic anxiety)

- ego (objective anxiety)

- superego (moral anxiety)

*attenuated via defense mechanisms

- psychosexual stages: five erogenous stages, fixation

- oral stage (0-1year) - mouth, weaning incorrectly can cause fixation, fixation lead to oral fixation

- anal stage: (1-3years): anus focus, toilet training can lead to fixation, fixation lead to anal retentive or expulsive behavior in adulthood

- phallic stage (3-5years): genitals, oedipus or electra complex can occur; fixation can lead to excessive masculinity in males, or need for attention/domination in females; oedipus/electra complex

- latency stage (5-puberty): sexuality repressed

- genital stage (puberty on): sexual feelings reemerge, healthy adults find pleasure in love and work, fixated adults have energy tied up in earlier stages

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

dream analysis

A psychoanalytic technique in which the therapist interprets the symbolic meaning of the client's dreams, divided into manifest (explicit) and latent (implicit) content

- dream as wish fulfillment

1899

Interpretation of Dreams published

1881

Freud graduates from U of Vienna

1909

Clark conference - Freud and Jung speak, as well as Titchener

Psychoanalysis reception in America

- 1909 conference, Freud & Jung concerned Americans too 'prudish' for sexual theory

- influenced medical community by 1911

- powerful force in psychology and popular psychology by 1920s

Contributions of psychoanalysis

to clinical psychology:

- recognition of unconscious process

- importance of early experiences in shaping later behaviors

- psychological disorders resulting form psychic rather than somatic causes

- defense mechanisms in coping with anxiety

- greater attention to matters of sexual behavior

- increased public interest in psychology

Alfred Adler

- Freud's disciple, to be society president

- first to break rank in 1911, taking 8 with him out of society

- individual psychology - people seek superiority, mastery of enviornment, perfection

- studied birth order, inferiority complex, power motivation

Carl Jung

- psychiatry and work with schizophrenia in Zurich

- wrote article defending Freud in 1906, sent to Freud, became 'disciple' as perceived by Freud

- 1913 - breakup with Freud - published Psyhcology of Unconscious - analytic psychology - personal vs. collective unconscious

- archetypes - inherited behavioral tendencies of a mystic nature - most important being 'self', which integrates conscious/unconscious components

- extraversion/introversion

- individuation - person comes to accept archetypes and unify into personality

- word-association techniques

- later influenced Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Karen Horney

- didn't study with Freud, MD in Freiberg in 1915

- feminist salvo against Freud

- 'womb envy' explains male power intent

- basic/generalized anxiety, hostility

Bruce Baker

Testing Symptom Substitution (1969)

- enuresis (bed wetting): psychoanalystic method and treatment

- Baker's method: find kids with enuresis

- Group C (conditioning, blanket)

- Group WU (regular wake ups)

- Group WL (wait list: control)

1913

Watson's 'Behaviorist Manifesto'; International Exhibition of Modern Art (Armory Show); Watson's talk at Columbia at invitation of Cattell - psychology failed to establish itself as natural science, deludes self into thinking it can study mental states, consciousness must be dropped

John B. Watson

- 1903 - PhD in Psych, U of Chicago

- Originally studied philosophy with John Dewey

- Psychology (James Angell, Henry Donaldson)

- Animal research (e.g., rats & birds)

- Dissatisfaction with psychology's emphasis (consciousness & mental events) & method (introspection by analogy) - beginning in 1904

- 1908 - Watson to John Hopkins

- 1915 - APA president

- 1919 - little Albert

- career derailed by affair; second life in advertising

George John Romanes (1848-1894)

- initiated comparative psychology (circa 1883) - introspection by analogy

C. Lloyd Morgan (1852-1936)

criticized method, instituting Morgan's canon - idea that complex process should not be inferred if lower process can explain

Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949)

- studied with Cattell, joined faculty at Columbia in 1899 after graduation

- did animal research at home, then in James's basement (chickens)

- cat in a box work at Columbia, found cats didn't reason, but learned through trial-and-error

- law of effect (precedent for law of reinforcement) - positive effect of action in situation leads to more of that action in the same situation in the future

- work described as instrumental learning

- influenced B. F. Skinner

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

- Russian scientist, nobel prize in medicine/physiology in 1904

- noticed dog salivation too early, led to development of classical conditioning

- studied acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, conditioned inhibition, emotional reactions and higher-order conditioning

- nominated 4 more times for Nobel

Comparitive psychology's influence

- moved away from concern with mental processes, to behavior, influencing behaviorism and functionalism, and demanding more respect as a science

Watson's behaviorism

- goal to predict and explain behavior

- weaknesses of psychology until then: (1) study of consciousness as object, and (2) use of introspection

1919

Watson does Little Albert study

Little Albert

most famous study of Watson, done with Rosalie Raynor, first demonstrating emotional conditioning. Baby Albert conditioned for fear towards white rat via association with loud noise, also acquired fear of similar stimuli. Though methodology called to question, highly cited study, very influential, cornerstone of behaviorism.

- never deconditioned, mother pulled him out early. first deconditioning by Mary Cover Jones in 1923

1908

Watson to John Hopkins faculty

1915

Watson APA president

Behaviorist Manifesto

- invited by Cattell to give lecture at Columbia

- later published in Psychological Review

- psychology should be a natural science (bc of methods not subject to rigorous analysis)

- goal is to predict and control behavior

- unobservables are unscientific (rejects introspection/consciousness as target)

- continuity across species

- attack on introspection - introspection gives wiggle room, can blame lack of replication on poor introspection execution

- attack of functionalism too -

- alternative - behaviorism - stimulus/response

- impact

- not immediate (boom in late 1920s)

- seen as just another criticism of structuralism, though eventually effective

- too narrow in focus? (though predict and control increasing appealed)

- not a singlehanded transformation

- but, Watson 'sharpened the arguments into a revolutionary weapon'

- APA president in 1915

Three big ideas of behaviorism

1. Emphasis on learning (of empiricism, Locke's tabula rasa)

- 12 infants quote - environmental determinism

- Little Albert - phobia acquisition thru classical conditioning

- habituation, classical, & operation conditioning

2. Denial of mentalism

- unscientific: desires, wishes, goals, beliefs, emotions

- scientific: observables (stimuli, responses, environment)

- example (p. 145): Tolman's learning-performance distinction

- learning irrelevant only need performance

3. No fundamental difference across species

Edward Tolman (1886-1959)

- PhD at Harvard with Munsterberg and Yerkes

- published most important book, Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men, in 1932

- behavior is purposive and cognitive

- animals build expectancies about enviornment and cognitive maps - studies with rats in mazes, such as + maze, in which rats turn right each time or go to same place, place learners learned faster

- called for study of intervening variables in S-R relationship (S-O-R), such as cognition

- learning-performance distinction

- latent learning - no food, rats still learn maze

Clark Hull (1884-1952)

- studied at Wisconsin, faculty there, then moved to Yale in 1929

- major theory published in articles in 1930s, 'Principles of Behavior' published in 1943

- with enough primary law, taking conditions as arguments, we can predict any behavior of individual and group

- hypothetico-deductive method - stated series of postulates, from which hypotheses were derived, then tested

- focus on drive, and drive reduction as motivation - sating of drives reinforces in general - those that do so best, reinforce more

- habit strength - strength of S-R connection, increased by increased reinforcement

- most published of his time, 40% of articles in big journals in 1940s, then steep decline, as laws didn't hold as laws - still raised respect of psychology as science

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

- graduated from Harvard in 1931, influenced by William Corzeir (physiologist)

- faculty at U of Minnesota and Indian U, then returned to Harvard in 1948

- didn't use math and theory, focused on prediction and control - experimental analysis of behavior, first described in 'The Behavior of Organisms' 1938

- - focus on R-S relationships, operant conditioning (reinforcement and punishment)

- work first not popular, then with application, became best known psychologist for a while (was inventor), applications to school, discipline, etc.

- last article criticizing cognitive psychology completed night before his death

On Scientific Progress - Three Views, Briefly

1. Sir Karl Popper: falsification - "The criterion of the scientific status of a theory is falsifiability, or refutability, or testability."

"No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong." Einstein

- implies slow and steady progress of science

2. Thomas Kuhn (1962) - Structure of Scientific Revolutions

- normal science - anomalies often explained way

- paradigm shift - episodic nature of science

3. Imre Lakatos - Research Programmes

- theories within a programme share 'hard core' assumptions (which are never put to the test). if hypotheses are built on these assumptions, since assumptions aren't tested, they could be erroneous

- question: is one program better than another (not true or false)?

- progressive programs: growth, new discoveries & methods, precision

- degenerative programs: less growth, protective auxiliary hypotheses