Studied by 1 person
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
George Miller & the Magic #7
People can store 7 pieces of information in short-term memory.
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. ex. ROYGBIV
Hierarchies
dividing broad process information into narrower concepts & facts
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
frontal lobes and hippocampus
explicit memory formation
Cerebellum forms _________
implicit memories
basal ganglia forms ____________
procedural memories
Hippocampus forms ______________
no memories; processes explicit memories and stores them elsewhere
flashbulb memories
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
state-dependent memory
the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. old learning interfering with new learning.
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. new learning interfering with old learning
Repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Person associated with repression
Sigmund Freud
Person associated with memory research tied to crime
Elizabeth Loftus
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
source amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined
deja vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
concepts
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototypes
A mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items in two categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird such as a robin.).
creativity
the ability to produce new and valuable ideas
convergent thinking
narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
divergent thinking
expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions
expertise
well developed knowledge, furnishes the ideas, images, and phrases we use as mental building blocks.
imaginative thinking skills
ability to see things in novel ways, to recognize patterns, to make connections
A venturesome Personality
seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, and perseveres in overcoming obstacles
intrinsic motivation
the quality of being driven more by interest, satisfaction, and challenge than by external pressures.
A creative environment
sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas
Algorithms
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
heuristics
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone.
Insight
a sudden realization of a problem's solution
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
Fixation
the inability to see a problem from a new perspective,
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
representativeness heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
language
our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
phonemes
in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
morphemes
The smallest units of meaning in a language.
grammar
in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Semantics is the language's set of rules for Driving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.
recepitive language
an infant's ability to understand what is said to and about them.
productive language
babies' ability to produce words
babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
one-word stage
the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements
telegraphic speech
early speech stage in which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).
Broca's area
Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke's area
a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
linguistic determinism
the strong form of Whorf's hypothesis—that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
Major Issues in Developmental Psychology
nature and nurture
continuity and stages
stability and change
Zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
terratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
fetal alcohol syndrome
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out of proportion head and abnormal face features.
rooting reflex
babies turning their head towards a touch, opening their mouth and searching for their mother's breast.
Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
Maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
most famous developmental psychologist
Jean Piaget
schemas
The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which go together. (Knowledge bowl)
Assimilate
The process by which a person takes material information into their mind from the environment, which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit.
Accomodate
adapting our current understandings (Schemas) to incorporate new information.
sensorimotor stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
Note
Flashcard