Psych Midterm

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

George Miller & the Magic \#7

People can store 7 pieces of information in short-term memory.

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. ex. ROYGBIV

Hierarchies

dividing broad process information into narrower concepts & facts

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

frontal lobes and hippocampus

explicit memory formation

Cerebellum forms \_________

implicit memories

basal ganglia forms \____________

procedural memories

Hippocampus forms \______________

no memories; processes explicit memories and stores them elsewhere

flashbulb memories

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

state-dependent memory

the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. old learning interfering with new learning.

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. new learning interfering with old learning

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Person associated with repression

Sigmund Freud

Person associated with memory research tied to crime

Elizabeth Loftus

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototypes

A mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items in two categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird such as a robin.).

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

expertise

well developed knowledge, furnishes the ideas, images, and phrases we use as mental building blocks.

imaginative thinking skills

ability to see things in novel ways, to recognize patterns, to make connections

A venturesome Personality

seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, and perseveres in overcoming obstacles

intrinsic motivation

the quality of being driven more by interest, satisfaction, and challenge than by external pressures.

A creative environment

sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas

Algorithms

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

heuristics

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone.

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective,

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

representativeness heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language.

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Semantics is the language's set of rules for Driving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

recepitive language

an infant's ability to understand what is said to and about them.

productive language

babies' ability to produce words

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

linguistic determinism

the strong form of Whorf's hypothesis—that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

Major Issues in Developmental Psychology

1. nature and nurture
2. continuity and stages
3. stability and change

Zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

terratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out of proportion head and abnormal face features.

rooting reflex

babies turning their head towards a touch, opening their mouth and searching for their mother's breast.

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

most famous developmental psychologist

Jean Piaget

schemas

The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which go together. (Knowledge bowl)

Assimilate

The process by which a person takes material information into their mind from the environment, which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit.

Accomodate

adapting our current understandings (Schemas) to incorporate new information.

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived