Comparative Politics: Government Structures, Electoral Systems, and Political Cleavages

Head of Government

Prime Minister. Leads cabinet, sets policy, relies on legislative majority.

Head of State

Monarch or ceremonial president. Symbolic authority, limited political power.

Vote of No Confidence

Legislature votes to remove government. Majority vote forces PM and cabinet to resign.

Constructive Vote of No Confidence

Legislature must vote out current government AND vote in a replacement. Increases stability.

How Prime Ministers Obtain Office

Elections determine parliamentary seats, coalition negotiations, formateur proposes a cabinet, legislature approves.

How Prime Ministers Are Removed

Vote of no confidence, party removes PM as leader, loss of coalition support, election defeat.

Formateur

Person (usually largest party leader) who forms government.

Informateur

Explores coalition options before formateur is appointed.

Single-party majority

One party holds majority.

Minimal-winning coalition

No party unnecessary for majority.

Single-party minority

One party governs without majority support.

Minority coalition

Multiple parties govern without majority.

Surplus majority

More parties than needed for majority.

Caretaker government

Temporary, avoids major policy changes.

Ideologically-connected coalition

Parties adjacent on ideological spectrum.

Minimum-winning ideologically-connected coalition

Only adjacent parties needed to reach majority.

Gamson's Law

Coalition partners receive cabinet portfolios roughly proportional to their seat share.

Presidential Systems

Executive and legislature separately elected for fixed terms.

Defining Features of Presidential Systems

President is Head of State and Head of Government, cabinet responsible to president, separation of powers.

Types of Presidential Cabinets

Single-party majority cabinet, coalition cabinets (minimal winning, surplus, etc.), more technocratic and less dependent on legislative majority.

Differences for Presidential vs Parliamentary Cabinets

Less need to maintain legislative confidence, presidents select cabinet more freely, greater stability in cabinet membership, coalition governments less common.

Semi-Presidential Systems

Directly elected president + PM and cabinet responsible to legislature.

Two Types of Semi-Presidential Systems

Premier-presidential: PM responsible only to legislature. President cannot dismiss government; President-parliamentary: PM responsible to both president and legislature. Stronger presidency.

Cohabitation

President and PM from different political parties, creates dual authority and possible conflict.

Electoral Integrity

Elections are free, fair, transparent, and competitive.

Single-Member District Plurality (SMDP)

One seat per district. Candidate with most votes wins.

Alternative Vote (AV)

Ranked-choice voting. Instant runoffs until candidate gets majority.

Two-Round Systems

Majority Two-Round: Must win majority; otherwise top two compete; Plurality Two-Round: Top candidates advance; plurality wins second round.

Proportional Representation (PR) Systems

Multi-member districts, parties win seats in proportion to votes.

Party Lists

Closed list: Party determines candidate order; Open list: Voters influence candidate rankings.

District Magnitude

Number of seats in a district. Higher magnitude = more proportional.

Electoral Thresholds

Minimum vote share required to win seats (formal or effective).

Single Transferable Vote (STV)

Ranked-choice PR system. Candidates reach quota; surplus votes transferred.

Mixed Electoral Systems

Independent Mixed System: PR and majoritarian tiers are separate, not linked; Dependent Mixed System: PR tier compensates for disproportionality of majoritarian tier.

Definition of a Political Party

Organization seeking to place members in office to influence policy.

Roles and Functions of Political Parties

Recruit and select candidates, structure political competition, mobilize voters, organize government, provide policy platforms.

Types of Party Systems

Nonpartisan, Single-party, One-party dominant, Two-party, Multiparty.

Social Cleavages

Urban-Rural, Confessional (religious), Secular-Clerical, Class, Post-materialist, Ethnic and linguistic.

Populism

Political approach centered on the 'pure people' versus the 'corrupt elite.'

Cross-Cutting vs Reinforcing Cleavages

Cross-Cutting: Group identities overlap, reducing conflict and polarization; Reinforcing: Group identities align, increasing polarization and party fragmentation.

Duverger's Law

SMDP elections tend to produce two-party systems.

Veto Player Theory

More veto players → harder to change policy; greater ideological distance → more policy stability.