Small Ruminant Medicine

Clostridial vaccine

Clostridium perfringens types C and D with tetanus

for sheep and goats

pregnant animals - vx 4 weeks prior to birthing

kids from unvaccinated dams - vx at 3wo, booster in 3-4 weeks

kids from vaccinated dams - vx at 2mo, booster in 3-4 weeks

adults - first vx, booster in 3-4 weeks, annual after that

Rabies vaccine

not labelled for goats but effective

animals exposed to wildlife or in frequent contact with humans

administered at 3mo and then annually, must be administered by a licensed vet or registered vet tech

Soremouth (orf) vaccine

not recommended for most herds unless Orf outbreak

live viral vx - must wear gloves and be careful to no self-inject

can cause self-limiting disease in humans

Caseous lymphadenitis vaccine

not recommended unless her is already CL positive

not very effective, cost prohibitive

Foot rot vaccine

use in conjunction with good management practice

Campylobacter/vibriosis and chlamydia (abortion) vaccines

vaccinate before breeding to prevent abortions in herds with previous history of abortions

Five-point system

Eye - FAMACHA

Jaw - bottle jaw

Back - BCS

Tail - scours

Nose - nasal discharge, nasal bots

Sheep nutrition

grazers, prefer grass and forbs, lower maintenance requirements, very sensitive to copper

Goat nutrition

browsers, prefer shrubs and twigs and vines, higher maintenance requirements

Grass hays

orchard, timothy, bermuda, fescue

lower in calcium, protein, and energy

typically lower in cost

recommended for male goats to prevent urinary stones

Legume hays

alfalfa, clover

higher in protein, energy, calcium

safe for does and good for supplementing lactating and pregnant animals

Grain and concentrated feed

corn, barley, soy, etc

supplement for forage in animals with high energy demands

not recommended for pets or adult males

Vitals

temp 102-104

heart rate - 60-100 beats/min

respiratory rate - 15-40 breaths/min

FAMACHA - score of 1-3

rumen contractions - 1-2/min

Castrations

recommended at 6mo for max influence of testosterone on urethral size

surgical castration or banding

ensure vaccinated for tetanus at least 2-4 weeks before

Clinical mastitis

warm and erythematous mammary gland, swollen

decreased milk production, pain upon palpation and milking, abnormal milk

discoloration of mammary gland skin

firm upon palpation

systemic signs

Subclinical mastitis

milk appears normal

detected by inflammatory cells in mammary gland → increased number of somatic cells

more prevalent than clinical mastitis

Mastitis

transmission - exposure of teat to bacteria (environmental pathogen or contagious)

diagnosis - PE, California mastitis test, bacterial culture or PCR to ID pathogen

treatment - nothing labelled for small ruminants, think about spectrum/site/side effects/ and immune system

prevention - good hygiene

Blue bag mastitis

acute onset of gangrenous mastitis

causative agents - S. aureus, Mannheimia haemolytica, Clostridium, coliforms

clinical signs - teat or udder base becomes cool and swollen, red to blue discoloration, watery/red milk/gas bubbles in milk, systemic signs (fever, lameness, decreased appetite), high mortality w/in 24 hours

treatment - systemic and intramammary antibiotics, NSAIDs, supportive care, mastectomy

Staphylococcus aureus mastitis

most common cause of clinical mastitis, second most isolated agent in subclinical mastitis

contagious mastitis, gram-positive cocci

clinical signs - subclinical to clinical mastitis, swollen/hot/painful mammary glands, chronic/subclinical infection, decreased milk production

treatment - cull or separate

Coagulase-negative staphylococcus mastitis

most important cause of subclinical mastitis

S. caprae and S. epidermis

persists through lactation, more common in older does

Gram-negative mastitis (coliform mastitis)

environmental pathogen, uncommon cause of mastitis

E. coli, Klebsiella

clinical signs - swelling/heat/pain affected mammary gland, systemic signs (fever, tachycardia)

treatment - intramammary antibiotics, NSAIDs, supportive care

Mycoplasma mastitis

suspect with signs of mastitis but repeated negative milk cultures

M. agalactiae - reportable in US, rare, mastitis, conjunctivitis, swollen joints, sepsis

M. mycoides - respiratory disease

M. putrefaciens - mastitis, agalactia, abortions

clinical signs - sepsis first (anorexia, isolation, fever) → purulent mastitis and agalactia, pneumonia, arthritis

diagnosis - requested milk cultures, PCR

treatment - cull

Retroviral mastitis

ovine progressive pneumonia and caprine arthritis encephalitis

subclinical mastitis

hard bag - interstitial mastitis, firm udder with loose skin, no edema, no heat, decreased milk production

diagnosis - rule out other causes of mastitis, biopsy of mammary gland

treatment - none

California mastitis test

stall-side assessment of inflammation, indirectly measures somatic cell count

5-point scale - lower = more normal milk

not useful in goats - apocrine ruptures cell membrane for milk secretion → more cytoplasmic particles in milk

Urolith risk factors

castrates males > intact males > females

decreased water consumption

high calcium, high grain, calcium carbonate or calcium oxalate 

vitamin A deficiency

high urine pH 

stress

genetics

Common urolith stone types

struvite

calcium carbonate

calcium phosphate

Urolithiasis clinical signs

variable

anorexia, depression, off-feed, bruxism, tail wringing

stranguria, straining, stretching

vocalizing, restlessness, pacing

abdominal distension, urethral pulsing, crystals on prepuce, ventral edema

Clinical manifestations of urolithiasis

bladder rupture, urethral rupture, hydroureter, urethral stricture, hydronephrosis, kidney rupture

Urolithiasis diagnosis

palpate bladder and ureters

exteriorize penis - need heavy sedation

ultrasound, radiographs, bloodwork

Clin path abnormalities with urolithiasis 

elevated creatinine, hyponatremia, hypochloremia, hyperkalemia, hyperlactemia, hemoconcentration 

Medical management of urolithaisis

IV fluids - isotonic crystalloids

dextrose, insulin, sodium bicarbonate, calcium gluconate - manage hyperkalemia

acepromazine - relaxes muscles

thiamine (vitamin B)

analgesics - NSAIDs, opioids, phenazopyridine

antibiotics if surgery was done - beta-lactams

urinary acidification for struvite crystals - oral or intra-bladder

Surgical management of urolithiasis

perineal urethrostomy, pizzle amputation, percutaneous urinary catheter, tube cystostomy, bladder marsupialization, vesiculopreputial anastomosis (modified bladder marsupialization)

Upper respiratory diseases

oestrus ovis, enzootic nasal tumor, sinusitis

Lower respiratory diseases

pneumonia, lungworms, lentiviral pneumonia

Thoracic cavity diseases

pleuritis, diaphragmatic hernias, pneumothorax, thymomas, caseous lymphadenitis

Oestrus ovis

nasal and sinus parasite

larval stage pathogenic

clinical signs - mucoid to mucopurulent nasal discharge, sneezing, nasal rubbing, inspiratory stridor

diagnosis - clinical signs

differentials - nasal foreign body, rhinitis, nasal adenocarcinoma, trauma, sinusitis

treatment - injectable ivermectin

Enzootic nasal tumor

transmissible neoplasia associated with retrovirus infection

clinical signs - nasal discharge, increased effort with stridor, reduced airflow through one or both nostrils, asymmetry of facial bones

diagnosis - clinical signs, radiographs, endoscopy

differentials - fungal granulomas, lymphosarcoma

treatment - palliative care

Sinusitis 

inflammation of frontal or maxillary sinus

causes - dehorning, infected tooth/maxillary area, neoplasia, trauma, actinomyces, respiratory virus

clinical signs with dehorning - unilateral nasal discharge, febrile, mucopurulent discharge from horn tip, anorexia, lethargic 

diagnosis - history and clinical signs, sinus percussion, radiographs, sterile collection of fluid for culutre

treatment - lavage, drainage, trephination, antimicrobials, NSAIDs

Pneumonia

risk factors - overcrowding, poor ventilation, dust, severe weather, young animals

parainfluenza type 3, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, herpesvirus - no effective treatment or prevention

Mannheimia hemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, bibersteninia trehalosi - clinically indistinguishable

mycoplasma, chlamydophila - polyarthritis, mastitis, infertility

treatment - supportive care if viral, antimicrobials if bacterial (oxytetracycline, tulathromycin, florfenicol)

Lungworms

muellerius capillaris

clinical signs - none to chronic cough

diagnosis - response to treatment, transtracheal wash, Baermann fecal

treatment - avermectins or benzimidazoles

Lentiviral pneumonia

ovine progressive pneumonia

transmission - colostrum, milk

2-4 year incubation period 

clinical signs - weight loss, dyspnea, cough, posterior neurologic signs

diagnosis - serum ELISA, PCR, radiographs

differentials - ovine progressive adenocarcinoma, chronic bacterial pneumonia

no effective treatment

twice yearly testing, cull to control

Thymomas

goats, often incidental

space occupying lesion leading to pleural effusion

cough, trachea impingement, heart failure

diagnosis - thoracic radiographs

Caseous lymphadenitis

corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis

transmission - mucus membranes, skin wounds

travels through lymphatics → abscessed lymph nodes

diagnosis - culture abscessed lymph node, chest radiograph, transtracheal wash, synergistic hemolysis inhibition test

control - test and cull, vaccination for sheep, prevent environment contamination

Ewes

short-day breeders, melatonin dependent 

puberty around 7 months

17 day estrous cycle

Does

polyestrus, most effective during short-day

cycle at 6-8 months

21 day estrous cycle

Ringwomb

failure of cervical dilation in ewes, heritable condition

treatment - manual dilation, administer oxytocin, typically requires C-section

Pregnancy toxemia

negative energy balance usually in final trimester of pregnancy with multiple fetuses

clinical signs - depression, recumbency, tremors, bruxism, staggering, incoordination, increased ketones

treatment - remove fetuses, dextrose or propylene glycol to nurse dam until fetus viable, B vitamins to stimulate appetite, transfaunation

prevention - maintain good nutrition, identify animals with multiple fetuses, spot herd checks with urine ketones

Milk fever or hypocalcemia

last 2 weeks of gestation

can look like pregnancy toxemia

treatment - IV or oral calcium

prevention - balanced ration during gestation

Vaginal prolapse

pre-partum condition

risk factors - genetics, obesity, multiple fetuses, poor quality feed, tail docking

untreated - abortion or stillborns, ruptured bladder, vaginal tear, intestinal prolapse, improper dilation of cervix

treatment - replace and retain

Uterine prolapse

post-partum condition

risk factors - dystocia, hypocalcemia

treatment - reduction and replacement

Pseudopregnancy

mucometra, hydrometra, cloudburst, inappropriate location, prolonged luteal phase in goats

diagnosis - ultrasound

treatment - PGF2a

Orchitis/epididymitis

typically due to systemic infection

Brucella ovis in rams - venereal spread

antibiotics not effect

cull serologically positive animals

Ulcerative posthitis

“pizzle rot”, corynebacterium renale

clinical signs - swelling and ulcerated skin, painful to urinate, prevent breeding due to scarring

associated with high grain intake and thick wool around prepuce 

treatment - systemic ± topical antibiotics, reduce protein, shearing

Vibriosis

campylobacter jejuni, campylobacter fetus

sheeps > goats

late term abortions, stillbirths, weak neonates

diagnosis - autopsy, isolate organism (fetal abomasal fluid, fetal lung, placenta, vaginal discharge), serology of dam

control - vaccinate pre-breeding, injectable oxytetracycline or penicillin in late gestation or during an outbreak

Chlamydiosis

chlamydophila abortus

transmission - oral or nasal contact with aborted tissues or fluids

clinical signs - late term abortions, placentitis, retained fetal membrane and metritis, vaginal discharge, pneumonia, keratoconjunctivitis, polyarthritis

diagnosis - identify organism in placenta, paired serum of dam

treatment - tetracycline during outbreak to prevent abortions in the rest of the herd

control - vaccinate prior to breeding, tetracycline late gestation prophylactically

Coxiellosis (Q fever)

coxiella burnetti

transmission - shed in colostrum, uterine fluid, milk, urine, feces

clinical signs - late term abortions, stillbirths, premature births, weak neonates

infected animals lifelong carriers

diagnosis - organism in placenta, PCR of vaginal swab, serology

treatment not effective 

Toxoplasmosis

toxoplasma gondii

clinical signs - early embryonic death, abortion or mummies, premature births, stillbirths, weak neonates, placentities, neurologic if immunosuppressed

diagnosis - isolate fetus and placenta, serology, necrotic areas of cotyledons

treatment - no vaccine, monensin or decoquinate may reduce abortions

Brucellosis

brucella ovis - epididymitis in rams, late term abortions, less zoonotic, sheep > goats, common in US

brucella melitensis - systemic illness and abortions, highly zoonotic, goats >sheep, rare in US

diagnosis - cotyledonary necrosis and intercotyledonary edema, culture of fetal tissues and fluids

no treatment

control - cull, prevent introduction

Leptospirosis 

clinical signs - late term abortions, renal disease, anemia 

diagnosis - rising titers, identify organism in fetus or placenta, dark field microscopy, PC

Listeriosis

listeria monocytogenes

transmission - ingestion of contaminated feed, decaying plant matter, or ruminant feces

clinical signs - late term abortions, retained fetal membranes and metritis, suppurative placentitis, fever and/or encephalitis in the dam

diagnosis - fetal necropsy and culture

treatment - injectable oxytetracycline

Blue tongue

orbivirus

transmission - culicoides midges

clinical signs - fever, swollen ears/face/tongue, ± abortion, hydraencephaly and arthrogryposis in fetuses

diagnosis - serology, PCR
prevention- culicoides control, vaccine

Border disease virus

pestivirus, sheep > goat

hairy shaker lamb

transmission - oral

clinical signs - weak hairy lamb with tremors

diagnosis - virus isolation

prevention - test and cull

Cache Valley disease

transmission - mosquitoes

clinical signs - fever, depression

congenital defects - arthrogryposis, brachygnathia, hydraencephaly, microencephaly 

Non-infectious causes of abortion

stress

iodine, copper, manganese deficiencies

inadequate protein or energy

toxicities

albendazole in early pregnancy, levamisole in late pregnancy

Haemonchus

clinical signs - pale mucous membranes, bottle jaw, weakness, weight loss, poor appetite, rough hair coat, ± diarrhea

diagnosis - fecal egg count with McMaster’s

treatment - albendazole, levamisole, moxidectin 

control - figure out which anthelmintic works on the individual farm, don’t treat everyone at once, don’t rotate anthelmintics, cull animals with resistance 

Coccidiosis 

most common cause of diarrhea between 1 and 6mo

risk factors - overcrowding, poor sanitation

clinical signs - poor growth rates, diarrhea, weight loss

diagnosis - fecal float 

treatment - amprolium, sulfonamides, ponazuril, ionophores, decoquinate

Mycoplasma haemolamae

hemotropic parasite of camelids

subclinical carriers common

transmission - insect vectors, contaminated needles, transplacental

clinical signs - most asymptomatic, mild to severe anemia, lethargy, depression, fever

diagnosis - blood smear, PCR

treatment - oxytetracycline

Haemonchus camelids

BCS can predict heavier parasite burdens

has become resistant to macrocyclic lactones

FAMACHA can be used on camelids

Eimeria macusaniensis 

causes disease in camelids

clinical signs - lethargy, weight loss, anorexia, diarrhea, colic 

shed intermittnetly, longer prepatent period

treatment - ponazuril 

Bloat

legumes → gas buildup → pressure in diaphragm

suffocation or heart failure in extreme cases

distension on animal’s left side

prevention - lush forage, avoid wet forage, add dish soap to water

Enterotoxemia

overeating disease

Clostridium perfringens types C and D

prevention - feed lambs to keep them replete, provide adequate bunk space

Polioencephalomalacia

cerebellar disease

necrosis or softening of gray matter

etiologies - excessive sulfur consumption, altered thiamine metabolism, salt poisoning, amprolium administration, lead intoxication

clinical signs - appear blind, head elevated and hypermetric gait, head pressing, cortical blindness, lethargic, anorexia

diagnosis - measure sulfide concentration in rumen, measure erythrocyte transketolase activity, fluorescence of brain via Wood’s lamp

differentials - enterotoxemia, head trauma, bacterial meningitis, nervous coccidiosis, vitamin A deficiency, ethylene glycol poisoning, rabies

treatment - thiamine

prognosis good

Lead poisoning

cerebellar disease

etiology - ingestion of batteries, motor oil, paint, roofing felt, mineral supplements

clinical signs - acute encephalopathy, blindness, ataxia, depression, muscle fasiculations, rapid eyeball twitching, head pressing, coma, convulsions

diagnosis - measure blood or tissue lead concentrations 

treatment - remove source from GIT, chelation therapy with EDTA, fluid therapy, thiamine therapy

Meningitis

cerebellar disease

inflammatory response to E. coli, common in failure of passive transfer

clinical signs - abnormal mentation, hypopyon, extended head and neck, cervical pain, signs of sepsis

diagnosis - clinical signs, pleocytosis of neutrophils, xanthochromia, high total protein

treatment - antimicrobials, anti-inflammatories, supportive care

Scrapie

prion disease

clinical signs - staring, nervous, aggressive, ataxia, blindness, pruritus, seizures, tremors

diagnosis - scratch reflex (scratch back and smack lips), IHC

Rabies

dumb/paralytic form vs aggressive form

clinical signs - altered mentation, ataxia, muscle twitching, paralysis/recumbency, bellowing, tenesmus, depression, salivation, pharyngeal paralysis 

diagnosis - fluorescent antibody testing on brain

Listeriosis

Listeria monocytogenes

transmission - oral via laceration in oral mucosa

clinical signs - micro-abscesses in brain stem, ear or eyeli droop, deviation of nose, circling, head tilt, nystagmus

diagnosis - CSF tap

treatment - antimicrobials

Meningeal worms

Paralephostrongylus tenuis

natural host - white-tailed deer

aberrant hoses - camelids and small ruminants

clinical signs - asymmetrical CN deficits or gait abnormalities, present recumbent

diagnostics - eosinophils in CSF

treatment - ivermectin, fenbendazole, supportive care

Caprine arthritis encepahlitis

kids - leukoencephalomyelitis, progressive hindlimb lameness

adults - polyarthritis, mastitis, chronic interstitial pneumonia 

Contagious ecthyma

orf, sore mouth, contagious pustular dermatitis

parapoxvirus, mostly young animals

transmission - direct contact, indirect through environmental contamination

clinical signs - papules, vesicles, pustules

diagnosis - signalment, lesions, histopathology

differentials - ulcerative dermatosis, sheep pox, dermatophilosis

treatment - typically self-limiting

prevention- isolate and vaccinate

zoonotic

Papillomas

young animals

transmission - direct contact with papilloma and abrasion

self-limiting 

treatment - crushing, pinching, surgical removal, cryotherapy 

Ulcerative dermatosis

similar to contagious ecthyma

clinical signs - red and swollen, vulviits or balanoposthitis in breeding season

diagnosis - have to differentiate from orf

treatment - lesions self-limiting, pain meds

Dermatophytosis

infection of keratinized skin

trichophyton

transmission - direct contact

diagnosis - fungal culture dermatophyte test media

treatment - spontaneous regression, topical shampoos

zoonotic

Dermatophilus

rain scald

dermatophilus congolensis

criteria for infection - carrier animal, moist environment, skin abrasion or lesion on recipient

transmission - direct contact, flies, ticks

diagnosis - impression smear, bacterial culture, histopathology

treatment - remove from wet environment, antibiotics, pain meds

zoonotic potential

Lice

mallophaga - biting

anoplura - sucking

treatment - injectable ivermectin for sucking lice, topical insecticides for sucking and biting lice

Mange

Psoroptic mange - common in cattle, pruritic, ivermectin

chorioptic mange - leg mange, variable pruritis, ivermectin

sarcoptic mange - deep burrowing mite, deep skin scrape, ivermectin

demodectic mange - deep burrowing mite, deep skin scrape, pour on or injectable ivermectin

Fly strike

cochliomyia hominivorax

attracted to fresh wounds, liquefactive necrosis

clinical signs - painful infestations, open wound with maggots, foul smelling odor

treatment - dectomax

Copper deficiency

molybdenosis 

clinical signs - gray white pigmentation of coat

diagnosis - copper levels in blood

Zinc deficiency

clinical signs - wrinkled skin, rough hair coat, hair loss around eyes and muzzle, could impair spermatogenesis

diagnosis - biopsy or zinc levels in blood

treatment - zinc supplementation, removal of high calcium products in diet

Llama

larger and more durable

guard animal

coarse hair, banana ears

Alpaca

sharp, pointy ears

fluffy, smaller and more skittish

Suri - dreadlocks

Huacaya - floof

Camelid anatomy

deep jugular groove - hard to get blood

split upper lip, prehensile 

obligate nasal breathers

fighting teeth 

stomach compartments - C1 (fermentation), C2 (reticulum and omasum), C3 (abomasum) 

sit in cush position 

feet have two toes, very padded 

ellipitcal RBCsC

Camelid vaccines

CDT, 7 way, rabies

optional - EHV-1, lepto, BVDV, west nile, EEE

Camelids worms

trichostrongyles, eimeria macusaniensis, parelaphostrongylus tenuis

Camelid therio 

females - follicular wave, induced ovulators

males - preputial adhesion that will break down, sexual maturity at 30 months

interested females will cush, males orgle during mating

bicornuate uteruses

gestation 11 months and 2 weeks 

pregnancy diagnosis - test with male, blood test with progesterone level, ultrasound

Criation

birthing in camelids

stage 1 - 1-6 hours duration

stage 2 - rapid should take 30 minutes

stage 3 - lasts 4-6 hours, pass placenta