Untitled Flashcards Set

Science

Systematic study of the natural world based on observation and experimentation.

Biology

The study of living organisms and their interactions with the environment.

Importance of Biology

Helps us understand life processes, medicine, environmental conservation, and evolution.

Characteristics of Life

Organization, metabolism, homeostasis, growth, reproduction, response to stimuli, evolution.

Hierarchical Organization of Life

Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organisms → Populations → Communities → Ecosystems → Biosphere.

Scientific Discovery Process

Observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, analysis, conclusion.

Hypothesis vs. Theory

A hypothesis is a testable explanation; a theory is a well-supported, broad explanation of phenomena.

Variables in an Experiment

Independent (manipulated), dependent (measured), controlled (constant).

Four Themes in Biology

Evolution, structure-function relationships, information flow, energy transformation, interconnections.

Atom Structure

Nucleus (protons, neutrons), electrons in orbitals.

Subatomic Particles

Protons (positive), neutrons (neutral), electrons (negative).

Atomic Number vs. Atomic Mass

Atomic number = protons; Atomic mass = protons + neutrons.

Atoms vs. Isotopes

Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons but the same number of protons.

Importance of Isotopes

Used in medicine (radioactive tracers), dating fossils.

Energy Levels & Electrons

Electrons exist in shells; higher shells have more energy.

Octet Rule

Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to complete an octet.

Ions vs. Atoms

Ions have gained/lost electrons, making them charged.

Chemical Identity

Determined by the number of protons.

Oxidation & Reduction

Oxidation = loss of electrons; reduction = gain of electrons.

Bond Formation

Elements combine based on valence electrons.

Types of Bonds

Covalent (strong), ionic (transfer electrons), hydrogen (weak attractions).

Electronegativity

An atom’s ability to attract electrons.

Water’s Role in Biology

Universal solvent, high heat capacity, cohesion/adhesion.

Water Ionization

H₂O → H⁺ + OH⁻.

Acids vs. Bases

Acids donate H⁺, bases accept H⁺.

pH Scale

Measures acidity/alkalinity; biological systems maintain homeostasis.

Buffers

Maintain stable pH in biological systems.

Carbon Chemistry

Carbon forms diverse organic molecules.

Four Macromolecules

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.

Elements in Macromolecules

C, H, O, N, P, S.

Examples of Functional Groups

Hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate.

Monomers & Polymers

Monomers link to form polymers via dehydration synthesis.

Dehydration vs. Hydrolysis

Dehydration builds molecules; hydrolysis breaks them down.

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose), polysaccharides (starch). CHO 1:2:1 ratio

Isomers

Same formula, different structure (glucose vs. fructose).

Cellulose & Chitin

Structural polysaccharides.

DNA vs. RNA

DNA = double helix, RNA = single-stranded.

Amino Acid Structure

Amino group, carboxyl group, R group.

Protein Structure

Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.

Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats

Saturated = no double bonds, solid; unsaturated = double bonds, liquid.

Lipid Functions

Energy storage, membrane structure, signaling.

Cell Size Limitation

Surface area-to-volume ratio constraints.

Plasma Membrane

Composed of phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol.

Cell Theory

All living things are made of cells; cells arise from preexisting cells.

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes lack nuclei; eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles.

Cell Organelles & Functions

Nucleus (DNA storage), mitochondria (ATP production), ribosomes (protein synthesis).

Rough vs. Smooth ER

Rough ER has ribosomes; smooth ER synthesizes lipids.

Lysosomes vs. Peroxisomes

Lysosomes digest; peroxisomes detoxify.

Cytoskeleton Components

Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules.

Mitochondria & Chloroplasts

Energy-producing organelles.

Endosymbiotic Theory

Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from bacteria.

Animal vs. Plant Cells

Plants have cell walls, chloroplasts, central vacuoles.

Extracellular Matrix

Provides structural support in animal cells.

Phospholipid Bilayer

Hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails.

Membrane Components

Phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol, carbohydrates.

Fluid Mosaic Model

Describes dynamic nature of membranes.

Membrane Proteins

Transport, enzymes, receptors, recognition, adhesion, cytoskeleton attachment.

Passive vs. Active Transport

Passive = no energy; active = ATP required.

Diffusion & Osmosis

Movement of molecules and water.

Tonicity

Hypertonic (water leaves), hypotonic (water enters), isotonic (equilibrium).

Endocytosis & Exocytosis

Transport mechanisms for large molecules.

Selective Permeability

Only specific molecules cross membranes freely.

non polar covalent

equal sharing of electrons (no charge)

polar covalent

unequal sharing of electrons (charge)

adhesion water

water molecules stick to other polar molecules by hydrogen bonding

cohesion

water molecules stick to other molecules by hydrogen bonding

Hydrocabons

Functional groups

specific molecular group that bond to carbon; keep their unique properties, attach to molecule and change how the molecule behaves in reaction

Stereoisomers

same structure different group arrangement

Enantiomers

mirror image molecules

polymer

a large molecule made by linking monomers together

monomer

a small simple chemical unit that can join with each other to form a larger stucture

Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides

1 sugar molecule (glucose), 2 sugar molecule(lactose), 3 sugar molecule(cellulose and chitin),

Nucleic acids and nucleotides

polymer; monomer

purines

adenine and guanine

pyrimidines

Thymine, Cytosine, and uracil (in RNA)

phosphodiester bond

nucleotides link together forming nucleic acids

ATP (energy)

adenosine triphosphate

Protein Function

Enzyme catalyst, Defense, Transport, Support, Motion, Regulation, Storage

Base pairing

A-T or A-U(RNA), C-G

polypeptide

individual chains that proteins are made of

Peptide bond (in a polypeptide chain)

basic amino group and acidic carboxyl group

Tertiary

final folded shape, for proteins made of only on polypeptide chain

Quaternary structure

arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains (form a complete protein structure)

Motifs

repeated structures found in many proteins

Domains

functional parts of a larger protein

chaperone proteins

help fold proteins correctly, problems with chaperone proteins are linked to diseases (cystic fibrosis)

Denaturation

loses structure by unfolding due to; pH, temperature and ionic concentration of solution

Lipids

don’t dissolve in water; fats oils, waxes, terpenes, steroids and some vitamins

triglycerides

fat one glycerol molecules and three fatty acids

saturated fatty acids

double bonds between carbon atoms, high melted points, from animals

unsaturated fatty acids

no double bonds between carbona atoms, lower melting point, made from plants

phospholipid

glycerol, to fatty acids-non polar tails, phosphate group- polar head

micelles

formed when lipid arrange themselves in water (polar head-outside and nonpolar tails-inside)

Phospholipid bilayer

hydrophilic-outside and hydrophobic-inside

history if cells

first observed using a microscope by Robert Hooke, early studies were conducted by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann (cell theory)