Edexcel History GCSE: Spain and the New World

What was the spice trade?

The trade of spices from Asia to Europe (and the Ottomans)

What was Spain's position in the 1490s?

They had recently come into existence through the union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon. The peninsula was also religiously united, after the inquisition forced out Muslims and Jews. It was emerging as one of the more powerful countries in Europe, rivaled by France and Portugal.

How was the Church important?

The Catholic Church had a lot of power, and so if the monarchs were seen to be pious, they may gain more advantages.

When did Spain expel the last remnants of Muslim empires in Iberia?

1492 after defeating the Emirate of Granada.

Why did Spain want to explore?

It would open up new trade routes (possibly circumventing the Ottoman monopoly over the spice trade).

New trade could be established with the natives.

They would ensure Spanish power.

It would be very lucrative.

People were motivated by the discovery of the Canary and Madeira Islands.

Why did voyages often need funding?

They had to pay crews often large amounts as exploring uncharted lands was dangerous.

Why did Ferdinand and Isabella support Columbus?

Isabella's personal priest, Juan Perez, was a friend of Columbus and helped him to present his case.

A successful expedition would raise Spanish power and prestige.

The expedition was potentially lucrative.

Isabella saw the venture as a chance to spread Christianity.

What was Columbus promised upon return from a successful expedition?

10% of all produce from discovered territories.

He would receive honours and titles.

He would be given the title Grand Admiral of the Ocean Sea.

He would attain governorship of any newly colonised lands.

What difficulties did Columbus face on the voyage?

Suitable provisions were needed for a long voyage, and for trading with natives.

Martin Pinzon disagreed with Columbus' navigation plans.

The crew was uneasy about sailing for long times. Columbus kept two logs, with one accurate and the other understating the distance they travelled.

Columbus adjusted the route to avoid Portuguese ships.

The Pinzon brothers helped Columbus find a crew of 80 men and 3 ships: the Pinta, Nina, and Santa Maria (2 caravels and a carrack).

How did the voyage play out?

The expedition left Spain from the port of Palos on August 3rd 1492. By October 11th, land had been spotted, and on October 12th they landed with hand-picked members of the crew. He discovered an island he called San Salvador, and later learned the natives called it Guanahari. He traded with a crowd of natives. Columbus was certain that he reached the East Indies.

How was Columbus' voyage significant?

Many believed that they had found a new route to India.

Spain was able to claim control of any lands found by Columbus.

Spain could be challenged by Portugal, who began to send expeditionary ships.

How did Columbus respond to his first encounter with natives?

He described them as timid and afraid, referring to them as Indians. The people told him that their chief had gold, but would not tell him where he was.

What did Columbus do after meeting with the natives.

He explored south and sailed to many different islands (now in the Bahamas) and landed on a large island, calling it Colba (Cuba).

How was La Navidad built?

After the Santa Maria marooned on the coast of Hispanola, the planks of it were used to make houses, with the help of the chief Guacanagari. This occured on Christmas Eve.

Why did Martin Pinzon rebel?

He left Columbus on the Pinta to look for gold without his permission.

What did Columbus do after founding La Navidad?

He sailed back to Spain on the Nina, leaving 39 men behind. He made it back on March 15th 1493. The Pinta rejoined the Nina, lost contact again, and landed in northern Spain before returning to Palos. He was congratulated and allowed to accompany Ferdinand and Isabella to Barcelona in triumph.

What was intial Spanish contact with the natives like?

It was rather cordial, with goods being traded (such as hats, balls, and glass beads from Spain for cotton, parrots, and javelins from the islands). The Tainos believed that the Spanish were men from the sky who would help fulfil their elders' prophecies.

However, Columbus would go on to describe them as easy to enslave and convert to Christianity due to their docile and taciturn nature.

Columbus saw the Tainos as friendly but saw the Caribs as vicious cannibals who raided other tribes for slaves.

What materials were discovered in 1493 in the New World?

Columbus found trace amounts of gold in Haiti, but Martin Pinzon found more on a nearby island.

Tobacco was gifted to Columbus by a native chief on San Salvador.

Cotton was seen growing on Cuba, San Salvador, and other islands in the Bahamas (although it was really kapok, which could be spun like cotton).

The Spanish quikcly adopted tobacco, rolling it into cigars.

What happened at Samana?

The Nina was forced to anchor during a storm. The Spanish went ashore but were ambushed by natives. Two natives were wounded and the rest escaped. It showed that the natives were willing to attack and convinced Columbus that 'the natives needed to fear the Spanish.'

How did Portugal react to Columbus' discoveries?

King John I of Portugal heard of his expeditions and claimed that it, not Spain, had right to rule the New World, as the Treaty of Alcacovas (resulted from the War of Castilian Succession) claimed that Portugal owned all land to the west. Ferdinand and Isabella denied their claims and began assembling ships.

How did Pope Alexander VI resolve the dispute between Spain and Portugal?

He made the Treaty of Tordesillas, declaring that any land to the west of a line drawn 2000km away from Cabo Verde. Alexander VI supported Isabella's claim due to her piety.

Almost all New World territories would be Spanish, except for a small part of modern day Brazil.

Why was the Treaty of Tordesillas important?

It gave Spain a claim to much of the New World and its resources.

What did Columbus do between 1493 and 1500?

He went on a second voyage as Viecory of the Indies (1493-96) and put in charge of 1200 people and 17 ships.

He became a governor and was responsible for establishing settlements and treating the natives well and converting them. He could also appoint officials.

The colony of Isabela was established, but was poorly ran as many were more interested in exploring than settling.

He returned to Spain in 1496 and left Batholomew Columbus in charge of the new colony Isabela. His brother would begin a new settlement (Santo Domingo).

Columbus returned to Santo Domingo in 1498 only to find it in uproar. He calmed matters by offering settlers special rights, but the revolt continued, which Columbus responded to by hanging some Spanish and natives. The Spanish sent Francisco de Bobadilla to arrest Columbus and replace him as governor in 1500.

Columbus and Bartholomew were convicted of tyranny, brutality, and incompetence. They were imprisoned for 6 weeks. Columbus was allowed to keep his titles but would be stripped of governorship. He undertook a fourth voyage in May 1502 and ended in November 1504. By this time, Isabella was dead and Ferdinand refused to meet him.

How did the discovery of the New World impact Spain?

Spanish settlers were encouraged to colonise the land for Christianity.

Riches in the New World boosted the royal treasury.

How did Spanish settlement affect the New World?

Tribes were made to pay tribute in gold, cotton, or produce. Bobadilla began to develop the mining of gold in settlements, and his work was continued by Ovando. Many natives were forced into hard labour at those mines.

Natives who resisted slavery were often brutally treated, either mutilated or had hunting dogs sent on them.

During the 1503 revolt, the Jaragua massacre killed hundreds of Tainos by burning them alive. Many more hundreds were slain in Higuey.

Smallpox and other diseases caused the native population of Hispanola to fall from 500,000 in 1942 to 60,000 in 1507.

Columbus' regime used raiding to enslave natives, but this transitioned to the encomienda system under Ovando.

Encomienda system

Spanish settlers would 'protect' the natives in return for tribute and forced labour. It was essentially a form of slavery.

What was Spain's imperial policy in the New World in the early 16th Century?

In 1495, Ferdinand and Isabella issued a decree controlling exploration in the New World. All ships bound for the Americas would leave from Cadiz and 1/10th of cargo on outbound ships had to be Spanish.

Settlers and prospectors would give 2/3 s of found gold to the Crown and 1/10 for other products. The discovery of new lands would have to be registered with the Spanish authorities.

The governor would rule from Santo Domingo after its destruction and rebuilding due to a hurricane in 1502.

Catholic priests (usually Franciscan) would convert the natives and perform baptism and discourage pagan activities.

La Casa de Contratacion was established in Sevilla in 1503 by Isabella. Traders would need permission from this agency before they could trade, and a percentage of all profits went to the treasury.

What were the Laws of Burgos (1512)?

These laws maintained the encomienda system and allowed Spanish officials to punish natives who violated laws, and set down that Indians were to be treated kindly and their work hours regulated. Teaching of Christianity was also mandatory.

Who were the Conquistadors?

Professional soldiers who explored the Americas to claim land and riches for Spain. Many were also hired mercenaries who were looking to get rich.

What did Balboa do?

He arrived in Central America in 1509 and by 1511 became governor of Veragua. In 1513, he led an expedition that discovered the isthmus of Panama and the Pacific Ocean. However, the lucrative nature of the expedition led to rivalry with another conquistador, Pedrarias. In 1519, Balboa was executed for treason in Acla by Pedrarias, who replaced him as governor.

How was the founding of Panama significant?

It acted as a launchpad for expeditions by Pedrarias and his second-in-command Espinosa, and later Cortes and Pizarro.

It helped with Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe.

How did Velazquez conquer Cuba?

By 1511, diseases had wiped out most of Cuba's native population, but also meant that the Spanish were running out of slaves.

Velazquez invaded Cuba in order to claim more riches and slaves. He also wanted to capture Hatuey, a native chief who escaped from Haiti with 300 men.

In 1512, Hatuey was captured and then burned after resisting conversion.

At Caonao in 1513, 2,000 natives were massacred by the Spanish.

In 1514, Cuba was established as a Spanish colony under Velazquez's governorship. Settlements were constructed at Santiago de Cuba and Havana.

How was Cuba's colonisation significant?

The encomienda system was established in Cuba.

Tobacco and other cash crops were cultivated on the island.

The native population declined from 350,000 in 1514 to 3,000 by 1555. In the mid-16th Century, African slaves were brought in.

It led to further exploration and conquest of Mexico and Florida.

How did the Spanish treat the natives?

Many were forced into hard labour and had to plant cash crops, leading to famine.

Others were murdered or officially enslaved.

Natives were required to convert or else be burned for heresy and paganism.

Why did Magellan sail to the East Indies?

In order to find a new route to the spice islands, which would allow Spain to circumvent the Ottomans acting as middle-men in the spice trade.

What happened during Magellan's voyage?

In 1518, Charles I put Magellan in command of 5 ships to sail across the Atlantic to find the Spice Islands (Indonesia in the modern day).

The Treaty of Tordesillas did not specify who could control the East Indies.

In 1519, Magellan set sail across the Atlantic and sailed around the bottom of South America at the Strait of Magellan. He sailed to the Philippines in 1521 and claimed it for Spain, but he was killed there.

In 1522, only one of the five ships (the Victoria) finished the circumnavigation, led by Elcano. Only 18 out of 270 returned, many very sick.

Why was Magellan's voyage important?

It proved that the Earth was indeed round (even though this was well-established).

It opened up the Pacific to new trade opportunities.

The colonisation of the Philippines allowed Spain to have massive control over global trade. The income of the royal treasury increased massively.

Why did the Spanish send an expedition to Mexico?

Explorers from a year before brought back riches and spoke of stone cities built by the Mayans.

Velazquez wanted more wealth from his ventures and favour in the Church.

Cortes became wealthy under Velazquez, and wanted more money.

What was the geopolitical state of Mexico in 1519?

Much of it was ruled by the Aztec Empire, which had many vassals who were resentful of their rule, such as the Tlaxcalans.

The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, had a population of ~300,000 people, and stood in the middle of the defensible Lake Texcoco.

How did Velazquez react to Cortes' planned expedition.

At first he appointed him as commander of the expedition to Mexico. However, he realised that Cortes may defy his orders and capture territory for Spain. Velazquez set out to arrest Cortes, but Cortes had already been warned and so fled with 11 ships, 600 men, and 100 Cuban slaves.

What happened when Cortes arrived in Mexico?

In March 1519, Cortes landed in Mexico, claiming it for Spain, and advanced to the Tabasco river where he won a battle with native tribes. The Mayans gave him 20 young native women as reparation. Malinche, one of these women, became his mistress and interpreter.

How did Moctezuma II react to Cortes' arrival?

He sent spies to look over what he was doing.

He found out that he had allied with Tlaxcalans, who gave him 1000 men.

He sent gifts to Cortes and invited him to Tenochtitlan.

The Aztecs suggested they travelled there via Cholula, an Aztec holy city.

Cortes feared a trap, but agreed.

What were the Flower Wars?

Ritual wars used by the Aztcs to gather sacrifices from Tlaxcala, Cholula, and Huejotzingo.

How did the massacre of Cholula occur?

Malinche believed that the Aztecs at Cholula (who were unarmed) would betray the Spanish and so told Cortes. In response, Cortes rounded up the local nobles, accused them of treachery, and attacked the unarmed crowd.

Why did Cholula have no armed guards?

As it was a holy city, it was believed that the Gods would allow no harm to come to its residents.

How did the Spaniards' visit to Tenochtitlan transpire?

Moctezuma II initially welcomed his guests, possibly seeing them as the God Quetzalcoatl.

Cortes took him hostage and threatened to kill anyone who opposed him.

Cortes made him into a puppet king.

Christian images replaced the Aztec temples' features.

How were the Aztecs ultimately defeated?

After Moctezuma's capture, Velazquez's 1000 men landed in Vera Cruz. Cortes went to confront him and left his deputy Alvarado in charge of Tenochtitlan. Velazquez's force was defeated and many joined Cortes.

Alvarado had many nobles killed out of paranoia, which caused La Noche de Triste, wherein half of the Spanish at Tenochtitlan were killed as they tried to escape. Moctezuma was also killed - stoned to death by an Aztec crowd.

Cortes and his allies regrouped and besieged Tenochtitlan, eventually taking it on August 13th 1521.

What did Cortes do as governor and captain-general?

In 1523, Cortes was made governor and captain-general of New Spain, and four officials were appointed to oversee his rule. They reported to the Council of the Indies.

He built Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlan and destroyed all Aztec holy sites.

He allocated encomiendas and encouraged settlement.

He imported sheep, goats, vines, and silk worms from Cuba and Spain. He wanted to make New Spain self-sufficient.

Cortes had many of the Aztec religious leaders killed.

He developed industries such as textiles, iron, and sugar cane production.

He took tributes from other tribal leaders.

Thousands of natives were converted to Christianity and Franciscan friars were sent to New Spain.

Why was Cortes demoted from governor?

Some conquistadors accused him of misrule, such as stealing gold.

He returned to Spain in 1528 and tried to impress Charles I with goods he found from his conquests.

Charles demoted him from governor to captain-general, but he was allowed to keep his encomienda.

How did the conquest of the Aztecs affect Spain?

More people were incentivised to explore the New World, and some believed they would find El Dorado.

Expeditions went to Zacatula on the Pacific coast and to Oaxcaca, which produced most of Mexico's gold.

Cortes developed new cities, such as Mexico City.

How were the Aztecs treated under the Spanish?

The Aztec ruling class was abolished.

Less land was left for Aztecs as new encomenderos came.

Many pretended to worship the Christian God, but worshipped their own gods at home.

The Spanish introduced new agriculture, such as wheat, cereals, new livestock, and dairy.

The Aztecs were affected by diseases such as smallpox and measles. The population fell from 25 million in 1519 to 6.2 million in 1555.

Many Aztecs were enslaved and put to work in mines and farms.

Natives languages (such as Classic Nahuatl) were still spoken but Spanish became the official language.

The Aztec religion was seen as blasphemous and was outlawed.

By 1550, three social groups were established: the Spanish, the Mestizos (half Spanish, half native) and the Aztecs.

Some of the existing Aztec social structures bore resemblance to the introduced Spanish ones.

What had Pizarro done before his expedition to Peru?

He went with Balboa in 1513, finding the Pacific. He was impressed by Cortes' results in the Aztec Empire and heard stories of a rich and great Inca Empire.

How did Pizarro's first expedition transpire?

In November 1524, he went south with 80 men and 40 horses.

They sailed down the Pacific coast and only reached Colombia before bad weather turned them back.

How did Pizarro's second expedition unfold?

In November 1526, Pizarro left Panama with 2 ships, 180 men, and some horses.

He reached San Juan River, Colombia. He discovered and captured a raft carrying native merchants and took their gold, silver, and emeralds.

Despite demands for him to return, he and 13 other men decided to stay. They journeyed south on an improvised vessel and found evidence of great wealth.

He returned to Panama in 1527.

How did Pizarro circumvent Davila's denial to support his third expedition?

He travelled to Spain in 1528 and visited Charles I, presenting him llamas, gold, and silver. He received a licence (La Capitulacion de Toledo)

What was the state of the Inca Empire before Pizarro arrived in 1531?

The penultimate Inca, Huayna Capac, was worshipped as a god by his people. The empire stretched from Northern Patagonia to Colombia and contained huge cities and fortresses interlinked with roads. However, in 1528, a smallpox outbreak killed many Incas, but it also reached the royal court, killing many advisers, generals, and the Inca himself.

He left his empire to his two sons, Atahuallpa and Huascar. Atahuallpa ruled from Quito while Huascar ruled from Cuzco. They eventually embroiled in a civil war, which killed many and eventually led to Atahuallpa's victory. He had Huascar killed to prevent him joining the Spanish.

How did Pizarro's third expedition unfold?

He left Panama in December 1530 and arrived in Quito in January 1531 and realised that the civil war gave him the opportunity to seize power.

He arrived in Peru in 1532 and approached Atahuallpa's camp on November 15th 1532. He was invited to take a ceremonial drink, but the Spanish poured the drink away and threatened them using their horses (which natives had never seen before), however Atahuallpa remained unaffected and had any soldiers who showed fear executed.

Atahuallpa invited the Spanish to Cajamarca square.

What did the Spanish do at Cajamarca?

The Spanish arrived early and hid, waiting to ambush.

When the Aztecs arrived, Friar Vicente was sent to negotiate. Vicente offered Atahuallpa the Bible, but he refused it and threw it on the ground, asking what difference there was between the Christian God and their own. Vicente called the Incas heretics, and the Spanish ambushed them, killing thousands and taking Atahuallpa prisoner.

What happened to Atahuallpa after he was captured?

He promised to give Pizarro a room full of gold and double the amount of silver. It took over a year, but eventually it was all delivered. Pizarro reacted by accusing Atahuallpa of treason and had him executed in a show trial. Pizarro made Manco II a puppet ruler and was welcomed by many in Cuzco.

How did the Incas revolt?

In 1536, Manco escaped the Spanish in Cuzco and began an uprising. He attacked the Spanish at Cuzco, where 10,000 Incas faced 150 Spaniards and 1,000 natives. The revolutionaries burned down building to drive out the Spanish, however they put the fires out and used their cavalry to attack the Inca warriors. The Spanish captured Sacsahuaman fortress in order to gain better defences, and were besieged by the Inca. The revolt was quelled when forces came back from Chile.

How did the conquest of the Inca Empire affect Spain?

Pizarro became governor of Peru until 1541, when he was assassinated by other conquistadors.

The Inca Empire was settled by the Spanish and divvied up into encomiendas.

Pizarro based his government in Lima, which they built. The shipped some of the treasures they found to Spain.

Many Incas were enslaved and other slaves were imported from Africa.

Smallpox and measles devastated the Inca population, reducing it by 93% by 1591.

How did silver mining develop in the New World?

By 1550, silver mines were discovered in Potosi, Guanajatos, and Zacatecas.

Many natives were enslaved in the encomienda system in order to extract the silver.

How did silver mining affect Spain?

Mining towns began being established as more and more resources were allocated to the mines.

This led to circulations of myths such as El Dorado.

This encouraged many prospectors to settle around the New World.

This increased exploration led to much of the Americas being colonised.

The vast amounts of silver boosted the Spanish economy as 25% went to the crown and the rest circulated in the market.

Spain had to find ways to control the New World so that their funds could be secured

What was the role of the Viceroys?

The Council of the Indies established the Viceroyalty of New Spain (which ruled over most of North and Central America) and the Viceroyalty of Peru (which ruled over most of South America).

Viceroys were often military men but could be clergy or lawyers.

They had great power and acted on behalf the Spanish government.

Poor communications meant decisions took long to be approved, so many would simply act on their own volition.

They governed through cabildos (town councils).

Justice was managed through the audiencia courts, which were independent of the viceroys and based in Spain.

Who was Bartolome de Las Casas?

A priest who preached against the enslavement of natives after witnessing it first hand as an encomendero of Cuba. He advocated instead for the importation of slaves from Africa. He renounced his role as an encomendero and went to the king, Charles I, to convince him to end native slavery. He was made 'Protector of the Indians' and, after being ignored by other encomenderos, wrote a book in 1527: 'A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies.'

In 1542, he convinced Charles I to pass the New Laws.

What were the New Laws of 1542?

Enslavement of natives was illegal.

Tribute sums had a limit.

Encomiendas were made non-hereditary and passed back to the Crown.

How were the New Laws of 1542 significant?

They aimed to improve the rights of native people, but many encomenderos refused.

There were revolts in Peru in 1544, led by Gonzalo Pizarro, brother of Francisco Pizarro. The Spanish conquest of the New World was halted in 1550 due to this. The revolt ruled over Peru for 2 years until the Spanish army arrived and had him executed.

Charles I repealed the laws, but insisted on the passing back of encomiendas to the Crown. Royal agents sent as replacements still went on to exploit the natives.

How was La Paz founded?

In 1548, La Paz ('the peace') was founded in the centre of Bolivia, and the centre of South America.

It commemorated the ending of Gonzalo's revolt and acted as the centre of the audiencia courts.

It was the administrative centre of the Spanish New World and lay close to trade routes to Potosi an Oruro, which helped with their protection.

Its location high in the Andes made it strong against attacks.

How did silver affect the Spanish economy?

75% of silver went to merchants and 25% went to the Crown.

It was used to make pesos, which enabled trade with Europe.

Demand for goods increased, and so foreign traders put up their prices.

This led to inflation as imported goods would be sold at a higher price.

The silver was used to combat France in 1542-46 (Habsburg-Valois Wars)

Spain's economy was based on silver, meaning that the country's development stagnated and it industrialised later than other countries.

What was the Spanish trade route between itself and the New World?

Ships sailed from Sevilla to Havana and would continue on to reach their destination in Lima, Vera Cruz, or the Philippines.

How did Spain react to privateering?

In the 1520s, some French and English privateers began attacking Spanish ships. 1542-46, French Privateers would begin attacking Spanish trade ships exponentially more during the Habsburg-Valois Wars. Spain combatted this by sending out naval fleets to escort ships close to shore, and would later form convoys: the Tierra Firma sailing to South America, and the New Spain, which sailed to Mexico.

How did trade operate between Spain and the New World c1555?

All goods imported to Europe from the New World would pass through La Casa de Contratacion in Sevilla, where merchants would pay tariffs and duties. Merchants from all over Europe would come to Sevilla, which lay 100km up the Guadalquivir, which made it inconvenient but defensible.

Trade involved plants (cotton and tobacco), crops (wheat), and livestock.

This gave Sevilla a monopoly over trade with the New World.

What was El Consulado de Mercaderes

It was a merchant's guild who demanded say in the running of La Casa de Contratacion. They managed trade and formed a monopoly which allowed the merchants to keep prices high.

How did the Spanish government respond to labour shortages in the mid-16th Century?

There was a shrinking population of slave labour in the New World due to the spreading of disease, which were compounded upon by overworking and massacres. The labour shortage led to rising wages.

The Spanish government couldn't directly buy slaves from Africa due to Tordesillas and so it gave merchants asientos (licences), which required the merchant to buy slaves form Africa and return them to Spain, where the Crown would buy them and the merchant would profit from a markup value. Asientos could also be sold between merchants.

What was the role of La Casa de Contratacion?

It was founded in 1503 by Queen Isabella of Castile and collected colonial tariffs and duties. 20% was charged on precious metals, and was higher if a convoy was required. It was lower where investment was needed.

It licensed captains of ships with many attending a navigation school in Sevilla and administrated over commercial legislation.

No Spaniard could sail without the approval of La Casa.

It maintained secret information on trade routes and new discoveries. This secret map (El Padron Real) was first drawn up in 1508 and updated as new land was discovered.

What was the Council of the Indies?

An advisory group set up in 1524. It had a president and 8 councillors and controlled all matters in the New World.

Members would discuss transmissions from viceroys and make recommendations to the king as to what action should be taken.

Once a royal decision was made, it was dispatched to the viceroy, however due to the large time delay, many viceroys would act on their own volition, citing the large delay as their reason.