5 Memory and information processing

Ch 7

How can memory and learning be defined?

• memory ⇒ ability to store and later retrieve information about past events, develops and changes over lifespan

• learning ⇒ acquisition of knowledge and skills from experience/environment

State and explain the theory/approach that describes how human memory operates

• Information processing theory

• emphasises basic mental processes involved in attention memory perception decision making etc 

Explain the model/framework for information processing by Atkinson and Shiffrin

• model shows that info needs to be encoded into system and cannot be remembered if info is never encoded

• info undergoes consolidation, a process that stabilises and organises new info to facilitate long term storage 

• info that moves to LTM for storage can fade without consolidation

• retrieval (process of getting info when needed) can be accomplished in several ways

What are the two types of consolidation and what facilitates the process? 

• synaptic consolidation ⇒ occurs in minutes/hours of initial learning as synaptic networks are strengthened 

• system consolidation ⇒ takes place over longer period of time for info to be moved from hippocampus to LTM in other brain regions 

• facilitated by sleep, disrupted by stress

• assisted when new material can be related with prior knowledge

• spikes of neural activity during non REM sleep is correlated with greater retention of new learning that is associated with prior language 

What are the ways retrieval can be accomplished?

• recognition memory

• recall memory (active retrieval)

• cued recall memory

Explain the working memory model and how it fits into the information processing model 

• passive vs active short term memory distinguished 

  • active STM = working memory

  • WMM fits into STM part of info processing model

• real time processing, retention, and manipulation of info to achieve goals - temporarily stores info while actively operating with/on it

What are the two types of LTM?

• Explicit (declarative) - involves deliberate, effortful recollection of events - conscious

  • semantic memory - general facts

  • episodic memory - specific experiences

• Implicit (nondeclarative) - occurs unintentionally, automatically, without awareness - unconscious

  • skills, procedural tasks, habits, “muscle memory” (anterograde amnesia affects only explicit memory but implicit memory is intact)

  • priming (exposure to one stimulus influences response to another stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention)

  • classical conditioning, habituation

What are some of the neural bases/correlates of memory? State the region and its function

(* especially recall h________ and l__________ cortex) 

• hippocampus ⇒ damage results in loss of memory + inability to detect/retain patterns (statistical learning). instrumental in creating episodic memories + consolidation of info from STM to LTM. damage doesn’t affect short term visual memory however  

• limbic temporal cortex ⇒ vocabulary 

• entorhinal cortex in the temporal lobe ⇒ critical in connecting hippocampus to other brain regions (like stronger factor in amnesia) 

• striatum ⇒ mediates procedural memory 

• medial temporal brain ⇒ explicit memory localised

What are the two broad categories of learning?

• explicit learning ⇒ consciously learned (e.g. rehearsing dates and factual info)

• implicit learning ⇒ acquired through unconscious means (e.g. experience and associations)

Describe the three types of learning

• classical conditioning ⇒ eliciting response through association with a stimulus

• operant conditioning ⇒ association of action or behaviour with positive/negative reinforcement/punishment

• observational learning ⇒ social cognitive theory, processing of info through vicarious experience/learning

How are infants’ memory assessed? (4 answers)

What type of memory does it show?

• imitation

  • 6 m/o displayed deferred (delayed) imitation

  • imitation of behaviour shows proof of retaining action in memory

  • ↑ early form of explicit/declarative memory

  • infants remember best when given repeated exposure, cues to remember, & events occur in meaningful/logical order

• habituation

  • learning to not respond to a stimulus (getting bored by the familiar)

  • proof of recognition memory as stimulus is familiar to infant 

  • indicators: preferential looking time, physiological responses

• operant conditioning

  • whether infants are deliberately/effortfully or unintentionally/automatically learning association of action and consequence

  • proof of implicit/procedural memory

  • memories are cue-dependent and context-specific at this stage 

• object search

  • A-not-B task

  • by 8 m/o children correctly choose (reach for) location B

  • suggested that 5-6 m/o show memory based on looking behaviour

What are autobiographical memories? What happens to them as a child grows up? 

• autobiographical memories ⇒ recall of episodic events 

• most experience childhood/infantile amnesia (few autobiographical memories from first 3-4 years of life is retained) 

• some college students able to recall memories as early as 2 y/o (lowest), but avg is 4~5 y/o 

Why do we have little autobiographical memories of being infants/toddlers? (6 ans)

• immature hippocampus and related memory structures ⇒ underdeveloped structures prevents consolidation to create LTM

• neurogenesis in hippocampus “refreshes” memory store as new cells replace old cells

• lack of language ⇒ autobiographical memory seems to rely on language skills

• level of sociocultural support ⇒ mother-toddler conversation patterns (regular rehearsal)

• sense of self ⇒ difficult to organise events (i.e. things that happened to me) without sense of self. ↑ knowledge of self would also ↑ autobiographical memories

• verbatim vs gist storage ⇒ childhood amnesia explained in terms of fuzzy-trace theory (children store verbatim and general accounts at diff levels)

  • verbatim ⇒ word for word recall; unstable and likely to be lost over long periods

  • gist ⇒ recall of general points; easier to remember than details, takes less space in memories

Why do children learn faster and remember more than infants? (5 ans)

• changes in basic capacities ⇒ better “hardware” due to brain development

  • improvement in encoding/consolidation NOT actual memory capacity

• changes in memory strategies ⇒ better “software” due to learning/applying effectively methods for memorising

  • older children use more effective strategies

• increased knowledge of memory ⇒ stronger central executive, can direct attention & memory, better understanding of how memory works

  • good metamemory can help children choose appropriate strategies

• increased knowledge of the world ⇒ easier to use familiar material to memorise as world around becomes more familiar

  • richer knowledge base allows faster and more efficient processing of info

• increased use and accuracy of memory scripts ⇒ accurate scripts about events, helps with recall of events

What accounts for developmental differences in memory?

• not actual basic storage capacity of LTM as it is suggested to not change much across lifespan

• encoding and consolidation processes develop instead ⇒ both show improvement over the course of infancy 

  • encoding improves as prefrontal cortex and medial temporal lobes mature

  • consolidation improves as hippocampus matures

• speed of mental processes also improve due to myelination of neurons

• as basic mental processes become automatic, they are performed with little effort, freeing space (cognitive load, working memory) for other operations

• sum: basic capacities actually do not change, but other factors influencing efficiency and speed do

What cognitive aspect accounts for improvement in memory?

• memory (encoding & retrieving) strategies (used more when goal is personally relevant) 

  • e.g. using external/behavioural memory aids, rehearsal (repetition), organisation (categorisation into meaningful groups, such as chunking, elaboration (creating meaningful links between items) - (strategies develop in that ↑ order)

• younger children (less than 4 y/o) tend to make preservation errors (using same strategy that was successful in the past despite not working currently) 

• retrieval strategies can influence how much is recalled

What is meant by “knowledge of memory”?

• metamemory ⇒ knowledge and control of own memory; an aspect of metacognition

• findings indicate metacognitive awareness is present from 2~4 but gradually improve throughout childhood

• influenced by language skills, general knowledge about mental states and roles in behaviour (ToM)

How exactly does an increased knowledge about the world improve memory skills?

• knowledge base affects learning and memory performance

• familiarity/prior storage of knowledge can make encoding new info that is similar easier

What is meant by “memory scripts” and how does it help with memorisation?

• scripts / general event representations ⇒ typical sequence of actions related to certain scenario/event, guides future behaviours in similar settings

• scripts become more detailed + richer

• scripts affect how children form memories of new experiences + recall past events

• if info is inconsistent, children might misremember info to fit into script (has implications for eyewitness testimony)

Explain how children use memory for problem solving

• Siegler’s adaptive strategy choice model ⇒ children have multiple strategies in toolbox which they select from based on task, motivation, & comfort level

• familiarity with a task and strategies frees processing space (mental capacity/cognitive load); allows for children to engage in metacognitive analysis of strategies

Describe the developments in learning and memory strategies for adolescents

• new strategies emerge, strategies are advanced, elaboration mastered, deliberate usage

• working memory has greater functional & expanded use

• basic capacities continue to develop and increase

Describe changes in metamemory and knowledge base in adolescents 

• K.B. continues to expand 

• metamemory and metacognition improve ⇒ increased monitoring of memory, adjusting strategies

  • linked to development in frontal cortex

  • varies by gender and SES

Describe the strengths and weaknesses in areas of memory for adults

• declines do not become noticeable until 70s, not all elderly people experience this 

• often struggle w memory tasks that are timed, but little/no deficits shown when not timed (cognitively demanding) 

• large gap between recognition and recall capabilities - indicates cues needed to retrieve info (recall vs recognition)

• older adults have more problem with explicit memory tasks that require mental effort than implicit memory tasks that are automatic (explicit vs implicit) 

• learning unfamiliar material and using unexercised abilities also make tasks more difficult 

What factors can account for declines in old age?

• knowledge base ⇒ knowledge and expertise continues to increase over years and is retained well (verbal knowledge, vocabulary, languages)

  • gains in knowledge help elders compensate for losses in information processing efficiency

• metamemory ⇒ monitoring memory to assist in learning

  • memory loss contribute to drop in confidence and memory skills

• memory strategies ⇒ less spontaneous use of strategies

  • adults show improved memory performance when prompted to use strategies

• basic processing capabilities ⇒ declines in sensory abilities, memory deficits, working memory capacity diminishing

• autobiographical memory rises in 20-30s, dips, then rises again after 50s

  • personal significance, distinctiveness, emotional intensity, life phase of event

• older adults learn new material more slowly 

• contextual contributors ⇒ memory is product of interaction between characteristics of the learner, task/situation, broader env (cultural context)

What problem solving strategy do adults use that rules out items?

• constraint seeking questions 

• when task is more familiar, older adults do better 

• unfamiliar context and setting (laboratory) may inhibit older adults from using effective problem solving strategies 

How do older adults compensate for diminishing cognitive resources?

Selective optimisation with compensation 

• three processes: selection (focus on a limited set of goals and skills needed to achieve), optimisation (practicing skills), compensation (developing ways around need for other skills) 

• middle aged and older adults tae advantage of SOC - used to help overcome weaknesses in explicit memory, patients with dementia due to AD