Module .1-.6

how is psychology a science

uses the scientific method systematic observation, experimentation, and data analysis to study the mind and behavior

three elements of the scientific attitude

Curiosity, skepticism, and humility

critical thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions but examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

how does critical thinking challenge common sense

different factual claims and overthinking can course doubt and might think differently

Research can over turn it

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome that one would have forseen it

I knew it all along

Overconfidence

humans tend to think we know more than we do

Illusory correlation

people mistakenly perceive a relationship or connection between 2 things when none exist

Superstition

Trying to find a relationship that’s not there

How theories advance psychological science

-if the theories work, then the data supports the prediction and it is better for the theory

If the predictions aren’t correct then the theory gets revised or rejected and it helps the same aspect

Peer reviewers

scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy

Other experts scientists reviewing the theory or paper

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

How sleep affects memory→sleep related observations

Hypothesis

a testable prediction, often inspired by a theory

Null hypothesis

The default assumption in stats that there is no significant affect, relationship, or difference between variables

Falsifiable

the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

Operational definitions

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research human intelligence may be defined as what am intelligence test measures

The recipe

Relay the recipe or information

How variables are measured

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

Random sampling

mostly experimental

Scientific method

-if you can replicate it=valid

Types of research

-descriptive

-correlational

-experimental

Descriptive methods

describe behaviors, often using case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations

Correlational methods

associate different factors or variables

Degree of relatedness between 2 variables

Experimental methods

manipulate variables to establish cause and effect relationships

Causation cause and effect

Descriptive methods

-case studies-reveal universal principles

-naturalistic observation-report what you say, descriptive techniques of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

-surveys-self reported attitudes or behaviors

Social desirability bias

-tendency for people to provide answers that may be dishonest because they are seeking approval and or want to highlight their character strengths

Self report bias

participants can try to affect the outcome of the research and be unrealistic about themselves

Sampling bias

tendency for researchers to target their participants to increase the likelihood of proving their hypothesis or failure to properly gather participants as a rep sample of population

Wording effects

how questions are worded can skew responses

Population

group that research is meant to apply to

Sample

a variety of people from the population used as participants for research

Random sample

participants chosen fairly to represent a population, equal chance of inclusion

Correlational coefficients

-1 to 1 with 0 being no correlation

Variables

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

How is correlation used in psychological research

one predicts the other

Scatterplot

a graph of clustered dots that represent the value of 2 variables

Perfect positive

study vs didn’t study

No correlation

height vs exam scores

Perfect negative

peoples height and distance from head to ceiling

does correlation indicate causation

no because we dont know if that actually causes it

Regression towards the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scored or events to fall back toward the average

Why are experimental methods used

To establish cause and effect relationships by manipulating variables in controlled steering to predict outcomes

Independent variable

the factor that is manipulated, the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent variable

The outcome that is measured, the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Experimental group

the group exposed to the treatment (IV)

Control group

the group not exposed to the treatment

Random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance which minimizes pre-executing differences between the different groups

Single blind study

research participant are ignorant about whether they have received the treatment or placebo

Double blind study

both research participants and stage are ignorant about whether the research participants have received treatment or placebo

Placebo

inactive substance used to test a drug’s effectiveness by comparing it to a control group

Placebo effect

-caused by expectations alone

-effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Confounding variables

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s result

Experimental bias

bias caused when researched my unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

Validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Non experimental

-to observe and record behavior

Correlational

-to detect naturally occurring relationships to asses how well one variable predicts another

Experimental

to explore cause and effect

Qualitative vs quantitative

in depth narrative vs numerical

Voluntary participation/informed consent

give political participants enough info about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Confidentiality

The state of keeping or being kept secret or private

Debriefing

post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions to its participants

Why is it important ensure scientific integrity

build public trust, underpin reliable knowledge, prompt innovation

How do psychologists values influence their research and the application of their findings

strict ethical codes, rigorous methods, transparency, honest reporting, peer review

Cross sectional study

Cross section of society and study them for a short period of time

Surveys, polls

Very quick

Longitudinal study

Occurs over a long period of time

Much more in depth

Biggest difference between experimental and correlation

-experimental proves causation (X causes y), seeks to find cause and effect

-correlation only seeks relatedness

Descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups

Include measures of central tendency and measures of variation

How can the findings be displayed

histogram

Bar graph

Mean

The average of distribution

Add all the scores and divide by number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution

Mode

most frequently occurring scores in a distribution

Percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal vs skewed distribution

normal= bell shaped curve

Positive= slope up and then curve on the right

Negative=curve upwards and straight down the the right

Skewed=asymmetrical and pushing away from median

Inferential stats

numerical data that allow one to generalize, to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Appropriate findings to a population

• representative samples are better than biased (unrepresentative) samples

• Bigger samples are better than smaller ones

• More estimates are better than fewer estimates

Meta analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

What does it mean for result to be statistically significant

how likely it is that such a result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the population being studied

Effect size

the strength of the relationship between 2 variables

The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other

Inferential stats

Seeks to find conclusions

Infer

Further research

Descriptive stats

Just describing the stats

What percent would 1 standard deviation

68% of people fall within 1 of the standard deviation of the mean

2

95% of people fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean

Standard deviation

Distance from the mean or middle

More than 2

More than 2 standard deviations outside the mean is 98%

Statistically significant

Further research

Positive skew

Right leaning tail

Negative skew

Left leaning tail

What p value do you want

Want a low p value to prove the results and make sure they are valid

Low result that the results were do to chance