World Religions- Module 2 Late Vedic Religion

The Upanisads

• Philosophical texts written at the end of the Vedic period (“Vedānta = end of the Vedas”).

• Focus on inner meaning of rituals, meditation, and self-realization.

• Shift from sacrifice → to knowledge, self, and ultimate reality.

Brahman

• The ultimate reality or cosmic spirit.

• Eternal, infinite, beyond the gods.

• The source of everything in the universe.

Atman

• The self or soul.

• Inner essence of a person.

• Upaniṣads teach that ātman = brahman (the soul is one with ultimate reality).

Karma

• Good actions → good results; bad actions → suffering, either in this life or a future one.

Samsara

• The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (reincarnation).

• Driven by karma.

duhkha

• Suffering, dissatisfaction, or pain in life.

• A central problem of existence in Indian religions

moksa

• Liberation from samsara (rebirth).

• Freedom from suffering, union with Brahman.

• The ultimate goal in Hindu thought.

dharma

• Cosmic law, duty, and righteousness.

• In the Vedas: rituals/duties that uphold cosmic order (ṛta).

• Later in Hinduism: one’s personal duty based on stage of life and social role.

4 stages of life (asrama)

1. Student (Brahmacharya): learning, discipline, celibacy.

2. Householder (Gṛhastha): marriage, family, work, fulfilling social duties.

3. Forest-dweller (Vānaprastha): retreat from worldly life, meditation, spirituality.

4. Renunciate (Sannyāsa): full detachment, pursuit of moksha.