Psychology chapter 6

Learning

Process by which experience produces enduring changes in brain and behavior

Associative learning

Learning that occurs when an association is made between events or between actions and outcomes

Nonassociative learning

Learning that involves changes in responsiveness to a single stimulus

Habituation

Decreased response to a repeated, harmless stimulus

Dishabituation

Recovery of a response after habituation due to a novel stimulus

Sensitization

Increased responsiveness to a repeated or intense stimulus

Dual-process theory of nonassociative learning

The idea that habituation and sensitization occur simultaneously and compete

Conditioning

Learning that occurs through associations between stimuli or behaviors and consequences

Classical conditioning

Learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an involuntary response

Operant conditioning

Learning in which voluntary behavior is shaped by consequences

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning

Unconditioned response (UR)

Automatic response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially has no effect on behavior

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned response

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

Acquisition

The initial learning phase during which an association is formed

Generalization

Tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus

Discrimination

Learning to respond to one stimulus but not to similar stimuli

Extinction

Weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a delay

Contiguity

The closeness in time between two stimuli

Contingency

The degree to which one stimulus predicts another

Blocking

Failure to learn a new association because an existing association already predicts the outcome

Counterconditioning

Replacing an unwanted conditioned response with a new, desired response

Fear conditioning

Learning to associate a stimulus with fear, mediated by the amygdala

Preparedness

Built-in biological tendency to form certain associations more easily than others

Vicarious classical conditioning

Learning a conditioned response by observing another individual

Conditioned taste aversion

Strong association between nausea and a particular food

Amygdala

Brain structure involved in emotional learning, especially fear

Law of effect

The principle that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened

Antecedent

Stimulus that precedes a behavior and signals possible consequences

Behavior

The observable action performed by an organism

Consequence

The outcome that follows a behavior and influences future behavior

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behavior by adding a desirable stimulus

Negative reinforcement

Increasing behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus

Positive punishment

Decreasing behavior by adding an unpleasant stimulus

Negative punishment

Decreasing behavior by removing a desirable stimulus

Primary reinforcer

Stimulus that is naturally reinforcing because it satisfies a biological need

Secondary reinforcer

Stimulus that becomes reinforcing through association with a primary reinforcer

Premack principle

Using a preferred activity to reinforce a less preferred activity

Delay discounting

Tendency to favor immediate rewards over delayed consequences

Operant chamber (Skinner box)

Apparatus used to study operant conditioning with free responding

Shaping

Gradual reinforcement of behaviors that increasingly resemble the desired behavior

Instinctive drift

Tendency to revert to innate behaviors despite operant conditioning

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs

Partial reinforcement schedule

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time

Ratio schedule

Reinforcement based on number of responses

Interval schedule

Reinforcement based on passage of time

Fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforcement after a set number of responses

Variable-ratio schedule

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-interval schedule

Reinforcement for the first response after a fixed time period

Variable-interval schedule

Reinforcement for the first response after a varying time period

Superstitious conditioning

Behavior strengthened by coincidental reinforcement with no true contingency

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is expressed later when motivation is present

Cognitive map

Mental representation of spatial relationships learned through experience