Apes risks

What is a risk?

statistical probability of suffering harm from a hazard

What is a risk assessment?

the calculation of the probability of harm to humans, society and the environment

What are high, medium and low risks for humans (connected to environment)?

high risk- global climate change, ozone depletion, habitat/biodiversity loss

medium risk- acid rain, pesticides, toxins

low risk- radioactive materials, oil spills, groundwater pollution

what are the top 5 hazards for US citizens?

living in poverty, being male, smoking, being severely overweight, being single

what are the top 5 hazards for global citizens?

living in poverty, smoking, flu/pneumonia, air pollution, HIV/AIDS

What are the categories of hazards?

physical, biological, chemical, cultural

what are the deadliest diseases in the world?

1. Pneumonia and flu
2. HIV/AIDS
3. Diarrheal Diseases


4. Malaria
5. Tuberculosis
6. Hepatitis B
7. Measles

what are possible infectious agents?

bacteria, virus, protests, fungi, prions, helminths

what are some possible modes of transportation/vectors?

contact with respiratory droplets, intimate contact with others body fluids, mosquitoes, fleas, contaminated water

What is a zoonotic disease?

any disease transmitted via wild animal or domestic animal contact

emerging disease

recently had significant outbreaks for the first time in recent years (whiten the last 75-100 years)

Re-emerging diseases

has historically been around for a long time (thousands of years) rates have droped but are increasing again

endemic disease

has historically been around for a long time with no big changes in frequent infections

treatment vs prevention for diseases

treatment deals with taking care of symptoms and getting sick people back to normal. prevention deals with preventing people from becoming sick in the first place

explain the effects of high human population densities on spread of diseases

for diseases spreed by air and close contact, high densities make infection more likely

explain the effects of frequent contact with animals on spread of diseases

for diseases to first start often they mutate from an animal host. farmers most likely get sick if they handle animals. more frequent contact with animals (especially in crowded conditions like feedlots) increase chance of disease transmission and strain mutation from animal to human.

explain the effects of consumption of bush-meat on spread of diseases

eating wild animals puts humans in contact with blood and bodily fluids of animals. humans could pick up disease, giving it a chance to mutate and grow in the body.

explain the effects of habitat loss and fragmintation on spread of diseases

Loss of habitat has humans come in more contact with animals that are displaced from areas, Disease transmission will occur from zoonotic vectors, Parasites that are involved in zoonotic diseases often thrive on habitat edges/disturbance

explain the effects of climate change on spread of diseases

Increasing temperatures allow vectors to live longer and live in larger geographic ranges.

explain the effects of pet and product trade on spread of diseases

Trade of animal products \= trading their disease

explain the effects of antibiotic resistance on spread of diseases

For bacterial diseases, overuse of antibiotics in the past means that current disease strains are immune to antibiotics. This means there is a lack of ways to treat disease

explain the effects of lack of sanitation on spread of diseases

Situations in which humans cannot control the sanitation of food and water allow certain infectious agents to grow and spread through the population

explain the effects of natural disasters on spread of diseases

Some natural disasters create chaotic conditions and unsanitary conditions that allow disease to spread through food and water.

explain the effects of habitat alteration on spread of diseases

Changing habitats to allow animal vectors to use the area more

Example - leaving stagnant water out, making mosquito breeding idea

What is LD 50?

the lethal does to kill 50% of a test population (refers to ingested materials)

what is LC 50?

the lethal concentration to kill 50% of a test population (refers to material you are immersed in/around)

what are LD 50 and LC 50 testing?

used to test acute toxicity

municipal solid waste

from homes/workplace

industrial solid waste

from industry (makes up 98.5% of solid waste, most is from mining, then agriculture, then industry)

what is solid waste?

non liquid and non gas waste

what are the common ways to deal with solid waste?

sanitary landfill (the most common method 55% of US waste is land-filled), incineration (burn it), compost (decompose organic material) export to other nations

what makes up a land fill?

\-dig a large hole and line with plastic and clay

\-place trash in and compact it, cover with a soil layer to keep out pests

\-install a methane collection system

\-install a storm water collection system

\-when full put a cop on in, consists of clay and sand and topsoil

Why line the landfill?

to keep materials in it from percolating and polluting groundwater

why collect methane?

methane is explosive, methane is a green house gas, methane can also be captured and used for electricity

why collect storm water?

if water gets in landfill it mixes with trashes toxic materials and will pollute the water. so they attempt to collect storm water before it percolates

why collect leachate?

leachate is the water that does percolate into the landfill. this water is toxic with many pollutants like heavy metals. it must be collected and treated to ensure it does not leak into groundwater

what should not go to landfills and why?

biodegradable things (landfills store waste but don't decompose it. decomposition time in landfills is incredibly slow. most materials do not brake done without exposure to oxygen) e-waste (much of this waste contains toxic heavy metals this is often not accepted) batteries (can contain toxic metals that can leach out to leachate) tires (often not accepted at landfills as they take up a lot of space and don't brake down and can float. people often dump or burn tires instead which can lead to heavy air pollution and leaving them out provides breeding grounds for mosquitoes.

landfills pros and cons

PROS- Provides jobs, Methane produced from landfills can be captured and used to make electricity, Can deal with waste issues well when managed properly, Land around the filled landfill could be used for other purposes or could be planted with vegetation - such as turning the area into a park or habitat

CONS-Leachate is toxic and can pollute groundwater and soil if leaked, Leachate needs treatment, which is expensive,

Materials take a very long time to decompose, if at all,

Releases CO2 and CH4, which are greenhouse gases, Potential odor source, Attracts pests, Loss of habitat for the landfill, Explosion potential if methane is not properly vented off, Not accepting wastes in landfills lead to other improper disposal

what are pros to incineration?

the volume of waste is significantly reduced, can be put in waste-to-energy plats to make electricity, some toxic wasted could detoxify with incineration, provides jobs, ash can be used for other proposes

what are issues with incineration?

air pollution is created (PM, dioxins, mercury, surfer dioxide), leftover ash needs disposal, incineration construction and operation is expense, releases CO2

what is composting?

putting organic wastes in warm conditions to promote decomposition

composting pros

resulting materials in high in humus, can be sold as fertilizer, composting facilities provide jobs, reduces volume of waste in landfills, can reduce odors from MSW when organics are removed for composting

issues with composting

composting facilities can have and odor, composting facilities can attract vermin, compost can release methane into air, composting requires more labor and time to tend than other waste options, compost could runoff into water and create eutrophication

Why export our wastes?

Poorer nations often accept wastes of richer nations.

E-waste, electronic waste, is typically exported. The processing of wastes can provide jobs and income for poorer nations. Improper waste handling can create major health issues for workers who do not know how to properly handle wastes

Why would companies chose to export waste?

Low labor costs in developing nations, Disposal is cheaper in developing nations, Shipment to another nation and recycling in developing nations is cheaper than shipment and landfill charges in the US, Less rigorous environmental regulations and enforcement in developing nations, Watchdog organizations to monitor this are less common in developing nations

What is municipal solid waste made up of? (ranked most to least)

Cardboard (Paper) - 37%

Yard Waste - 12%

Food Waste - 11%

Plastics - 11%

Metals - 8%

(most of what goes to land fill could be composted or recycled)

what are the 4 Rs? (ranked form most impactful to least impactful)

REFUSE (Do not buy things we really DON"T need! example: Phones! Cars!) REDUCE (Simply use less of what is needed) REUSE (Use the item for same intended purpose again Example - Bottle fees that are paid upfront for all bottles and then returned when you return the bottle) RECYCLE (Retooling/reprocessing the item for another use)

Material-Recovery Facilities (MRFs)

Users put all recyclables together for collection. Then machines sort out the items for recycling and burn the rest.

Source Separation

Have users sort their recyclables from rest of trash into appropriate categories, Sorted materials are collected by the community

Fee-per-bag

Have users pay for the weight of trash set on the curb. This causes more people to recycle so that their weight of trash is reduced.

pros and cons of recycling

PROS-Provides jobs, Educates people on waste issues, Less waste in landfills, Extends supplies of nonrenewables like minerals

CONS-Sometimes more expensive than just disposal, Plastics are cheaper to throw away than recycle (only 9% is recycled), Require energy to recycle, It can be inefficient, Depending on the product, it may not save a lot of energy

What must happen for a waste to be called hazardous?

it must possess at least 1 of these 4 criteria:

Toxic

Reactive

Corrosive

Flammable

who is the largest producer of hazardous waste?

US (Most hazardous waste is made by developed nations

(Hazardous waste management) try to produce less

Recycle or reuse materials (e.g. oil, paints, batteries), Substitute non-hazardous materials (e.g - alcohol vs mercury thermometers), Use energy sources that do not create hazardous materials, Regulation and laws of hazardous waste production

(Hazardous waste management) Make existing waste less hazardous

Bioremediation (using living organisms to remove toxins and contaminants, Many microorganisms like bacteria, protists, and fungi can "eat" or detoxify wastes) Many plants can also remove some wastes (using plants for cleaning wastes is called phytoremediation) Incineration(burning wastes can detoxify some wastes and reduce waste volume, however, it can create new chemical compounds that are dangerous, like dioxins - a cancer-causing agent)

(Hazardous waste management) Safe, long-term disposal

Deep-well Disposal (Liquid wastes pumped into porous rock deep beneath aquifers, Only pump into geologically stable areas, Wastes should be retrievable, There is potential for water pollution) Surface Impoundments (Lined "landfill" for liquid wastes, There is potential for leakage into surrounding soil and groundwater if lining breaks)

Love Canal NY

Before WWII, a man named Love started building a canal in the New York community., The canal was abandoned and the land sold to Hooker Chemical Company, Hooker used the canal as a chemical storage disposal basin for many years., Eventually, Hooker covered up the canal with dirt and vegetation, Hooker sold the land to the state of NY for $1, A community was built around the former canal, Residents in the 1950s-1970s developed many health conditions, including various cancers, birth defects, and major health issues, Residents also noticed foul odors and weird chemicals after rains, Lois Gibbs (a community mother) linked the issues with the poor disposal of wastes, Community was evacuated and remediated in late 1970s.

Great Pacific Garbage Patch

A large collection of waste in the Pacific Ocean that has come from land, Waste collects here because natural ocean currents leave a slow moving area that waste collects, Slow-moving areas of the ocean are called gyres, Considered to be the size of Texas, There are many other garbage patches in many other bodies of water on Earth

Effects of Garbage Patches

Plastics often contain endocrine disrupting chemicals - health effects on marine wildlife, Plastics attract and absorb toxic chemicals also in the water, Choking hazard to wildlife when trash bits are mistaken for food, Wildlife get caught in trash and cannot escape, Trash layer blocks sunlight to algae and other creatures at lower depths - restricts photosynthesis to start the food chain, Plastic does not biodegrade - no biological organism breaks it down, it photodegrades, meaning that light can break it into smaller pieces

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) - 1976

Required hazardous wastes to be managed and tracked from "cradle to grave" (or traced from origin to its final disposal) Set up regulation standards for the management of non-hazardous solid waste, Attempted to place regulations on underground storage tanks, to prevent leaking of materials like oil into the ground

CERCLA - Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (also known as Superfund) - 1980

Created a tax on chemical & oil companies; this money created a fund, Fund used to clean up contaminated sites, A list was created of the most in-need sites around the country to be cleaned up - This is called the National Priority List (NPL) Law held polluters liable for problems associated with dumping of materials - this pretty much eliminated random dumping of materials in the future. Superfund was not renewed in 1995 - the fund is now broke.

What is environmental justice?

all people have the right to a clean environment, no matter race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic background.

how does environmental justice apply to waste management?

Waste needs to be spread out amongst users and not placed in poorest or politically weakest communities

Examples of Environmental Discrimination in the US

\-Most US hazardous waste dumps are in communities of African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, and Native Americans

\-"Cancer Alley" in Louisiana produces a majority of toxic oil refining. It is placed in low income areas affecting mostly minority populations

\-Export of wastes to other nations

What is toxicology?

the study of adverse effects of chemicals on health

what is the primary rule of toxicology?

any material is toxic if enough is ingested

Acute effects

immediate or rapid harmful reaction

chronic effects

permanent or long-lasting harmful effects on health

toxicity of a chemical depends on what factors?

dose of the chemical, frequency of exposure, who is exposed (adult or child), each individuals body systems and genetic ability to remove toxins front he body

persistence

how easily does chemical brake down over time

Bioaccumulation

how easily the chemical is absorbed into the cells and tissues of the body. is it water or fat soluble?

water soluble

flushed out of the water with water, so in the body for less time

fat soluble

chemicals absorbed into fat and are harder to eliminate as you must lose fat to eliminate the chemical

Biomagnification

how easily the chemical increases in concentration per unit body weight in higher tropic levels of food chain (how does it jump from body to body)

antagonism

chemicals that reduce each others harmful effects

synergistic

chemicals that mix and multiply harmful effects

Mutages

chemicals that cause mutation of DNA (some DNA mutations have no effects on body while others are very harmful)

Teratogens

chemicals that cause birth defects (alcohol)

Carcinogens

chemicals that cause/promote cancer

What is the Delaney Clause?

it states that you cannot put additives into food that are known to cause cancer

precautinary principle

you must extensively test the chemical first and show no chance for harm. then you can use it

pesticides

anything that kills pests

broad spectrum

pesticides toxic to a wide array of species

narrow spectrum

pesticides toxic to smaller, targeted group of organisms

Organochlorines/chlorinated hydrocarbons

broad spectrum, highly persistent, water insoluble (fat soluble), many have been banned due to persistence

Organophosphates

broad spectrum less persistent as the degrade quickly, show very sever toxicity to nervous system (can poison human applicators)

Neonicotinoids

chemically similar to nicotine compounds, strong neurotoxicity to insects, water soluble (easy for plants to absorb), plants hold it for longer and keeps resistance as it grows, initial studies indicated low impact and toxicity on non-target animals but recent studies show that is not true and can be a reason for bird and bee population decline

pesticides pros and cons

PRO- can help save lives and improve public heath by reducing disease vectors, increase food supply by reducing crop damage, increase farming profits, fast acting, est to use, non-toxic (f used properly), new pesticides are safer

CON- pest develop resistance, farmers pay more each year to battle resistant pests, often kill more than just the pest, move through the environment in the food web, some may be presistant, can be toxic if not used properly, some people argue pesticides have not reduced crop loss

the Bhopal accident

the worlds worst industrial accident, Union Carbide (pesticide company) had leak of over 30 tons of MIC gas (toxic cyanide gs for pesticides). toxic gas cloud emerged from an explosion and floated into nearby towns and villages causing immediate deaths, acute toxicity and chronic heath issues for survives

What is DDT and what was it used for?

A broad-spectrum, chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide

Used to reduce malaria and typhus (disease spread by lice/fleas) and to control household pests. Helped win WWII

what are the negative effects of DDT and how does it affect birds?

It thins eggshells of birds found at higher trophic level (Ex: eagles, condors), causing eggs to crush when birds incubate them, Fat-soluble, Biomagnifies up the food chain, Persistent (still found in body tissue from 1960s and 70s)

Who was Rachel Carson?

The author of the Silent Spring. Warned of the harms of continued pesticide use (DDT)

what does IPM stand for? and what is it?

Integrated Pest Management. Using a combination of biological, chemical, and physical means to control pests

what are IPMs goals and how are the done?

To help reduce pesticide use, To control pest populations (You can use pesticides, but they are used sparingly and only when it is the best choice for pest control)

* Biological Controls
* Use native pest parasite (ex: parasitic wasps)
* Introduction of diseases to pest population
* Use of sterile males in pest population
* Use of native predators/domesticated animals
* Physical Controls
* Crop rotation
* Adjusting planting time of crops
* Physical barriers or traps that catch pests
* Chemical Controls
* Use of pheromones to lure pests away from crops or trap them
* Use of narrow-spectrum, non-persistent pesticides

What are the four factors linked to colony collapse disorder?

Disease/parasites, monoculture, pesticides, flowerless landscape

What are Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)? ans what are there risks?

hemicals that do not easily break down in the environment since they are synthetic and carbon-based. risks are Toxic, Fat-soluble, Bioaccumulating, Biomagnifying, Able to travel long distances from their source

What are the Dirty Dozen?

The initial list of the 12 worst POPs (there are more than 12 on the list now) Most of these are chlorinated hydrocarbons that were often used as broad-spectrum pesticides

What is the Stockholm Convention Treaty

Defined the Dirty Dozen and required the ban or restriction in the production of the worst POPs

what is the Grasshopper Effectan effect

an effect that explains how POPs often travel far from their source (often moving to polar regions, despite not major human population or industry in these areas) POPs (and other volatile chemicals) can evaporate into air easily. They often enter air in warm temperate/tropical areas. Then condense and fall back to Earth. This evaporation/condensation cycle continues with the pollutant "hopping" to the poles over many cycles, like a grasshopper hops.

What are Endocrine Disrupters?

chemicals that disrupt, block, or mimic hormone action in the body. Hormones are usually controlled by the body's endocrine system. Many endocrine disruptors tend to mimic estrogen. Many chemicals are endocrine disruptors. Research shows that the tiniest concentrations can cause health issues