MCAT Psych/Soc: Memory and Learning

Limbic system

The neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. Comprised of the hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and amygdala.

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. Important for memory and learning

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression. Communicates with the hypothalamus to produce the endocrine response to emotions

visual sensory perception

First, sensory information arrives at the thalamus. If there is no need to process further, the thalamus filters out the sensory input

structural techniques of neuroscience

measures what the brain looks like: MRI and CT scan

functional techniques of neurosceince

measure what brain regions are doing: PET, fMRI, EEG

neural plasticity

cortical reorganization in the brain that occurs in response to learning and experience, as well as behavior, emotions, etc. Change can occur from the cellular level to the anatomical level.

long-term potentiation

Connections between neurons strengthen the more you use them. Physical methods are not completely understood

basic steps of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding memory

transfer of sensation into our memory system

storage of memory

retaining information in short-term or long-term memory

retrieval of memory

extracting information that has been stored

multi-store model of memory

Sensory input enters sensory memory, and unattended information is quickly lost. Attention to the stimulus causes short-term memory, unrehearsed information is lost. Encoding consolidation of short-term memory causes long-term memory, which can be retrieved into short-term memory. Over time, some information may be lost from long-term memory.

serial position effects

primacy effect and recency effect, hard to remember things in the middle

primacy effect

tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows

recency effect

tendency to remember recent information better than earlier information

Working memory

short-term memory

Baddeley's model of working memory

Consists of the central executive, which acts as a supervisory system and controls the flow of information from and to its slave systems: the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer

phonological loop

short-term phonological store with auditory rehearsal. Can be encoded into long-term semantic verbal memory.

visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information. Can be encoded into long-term semantic visual memory

episodic buffer

A component of working memory where information in working memory interacts with information in long-term memory. Can be encoded into long-term episodic memory

encoding

The process of transforming information into a form that is more easily stored in our brains. Four basic kinds: semantic, acoustic, visual, and elaborative.

elaborative encoding

the process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory

Rehearsal

an encoding strategy where reptition of information leads to increased retention.

chunking

An encoding strategy that groups related information into chunks (phone numbers)

elaboration

an encoding strategy that intertwines information to be remembered with well-entrenched pre-existing long term spatial, visual, acoustic, or semantic memories

self-reference

An encoding strategy that makes information to be remembered personally relevant

spacing

an encoding strategy that states that memory works better when reviewed material is spaced out over time

mnemonics

Any encoding strategy that improves the retention of information

sensory memory

iconic and acoustic/echoic memory, which decays quickly (iconic in less than a second, acoustic in 2-4 seconds)

Short-term memory

is separated by a rehearsal buffer capacity of 7+/-2 items at a time. Decays in 15-30 seconds and is primarily acoustic

long-term memory

permanent storage with an unknown upper limit to capacity. Encoding is primarily semantic (meaning-making)

Explicit memory

long-term memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

episodic memory

long-term explicit memory of events you have personally experienced

semantic memory

long-term explicit memory of general knowledge of facts and information

implicit memory

long-term Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously

procedural memory

The long-term implicit memory of motor skills and actions that have been learned previously

classical conditioning

long-term implicit memory through association of stimuli.

priming

occurs when exposure to one stimulus influences the response to another stimulus

semantic networks

Organization of information in networks of meaningfully related memories, storage of semantic memory

spreading activation

Occurs when one item brought into working memory triggers an activation of related semantic memory

retrieval cue

any stimulus that assists in memory retrival

positive priming

speeds up processing caused by simply experiencing the stimulus

negative priming

An implicit memory effect in which prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably influences the response to the same stimulus

context-dependent memory

We are better at retrieving information in the same environmental context in which the information was learned. "Context effect"

state-dependent memory

We are better at remembering when we are in the same internal state that we were in when the information was encoded; "state-dependency effect"

retrieval

the process of finding information stored in memory

free recall

a testing condition in which a person is asked to retreive information without explicit retrieval cues

cued recall

A test of long-term memory that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue.

recognition memory

an ability to correctly identify previously learned information given different retrieval cues

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

flashbulb memory

people can remember great detail about their episodic memories of particularly emotionally arousing events; however, this is not entirely dependable

eidetic memory

the ability to vivdly recall images from memory after only a few instances of exposure with high precision for a brief time after exposure without using mnemonic devices

reproductive memory

accurate retrieval of information from memory, without significant alteration

prospective memory

remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point in time, such as remembering to do your next assignment

dual coding theory

a theory that holds that the combination of words with visuals provides us with two different channels for later recall, which assists in memory retrieval. Thus, learning works better when words are presented with relevant images or such images are imagined by the learner.

levels of processing model

focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory; predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last

reminiscence bump

older adults generally remember events they experienced from 10-30 years old better than any other time period, includng more recent time periods

practice effects

The improvement that would be expected to occur simply from repeated exposure to a specific memory test.

method of loci

a method of memory retention in which the individual uses visualized spatial information (like their house) to recall lists of words to be memorized. Also called: memory journey, memory palace, or mind palace

peg words

a memory technique in which an individual connects words to numbers and creates an association to improve retention. The item-number pairs also rhyme to assist in recollection

intrusion errors

Substitution of an often semantically meaningful word during free and serial recall of word lists. Can also occur in episodic ememories when information that is consistent but did not actually occur is appended during memory retrieval

Memory as a reconstructive process

each time a memory is retrieved, the memory trace is strengthed, but also potentially altered

displacement of memory

occurs in short term memory when one item in the list of words to be remembered bumps out another as most people can only store 7+/-2 items in STM

interference

when competing material makes it more difficult to encode or retrieve information

Proactive interference

Prior learning interferes with new learning (PRior, PRoactive)

Retroactive interference

recent learning interferes with old learning (REtroactive, REcent)

Memory that improves with aging

semantic memory, emotional intelligence

Memory that is stable with aging

implicit memory, crystallized intelligence (ability to retrieve general info)

Memory that declines with aging

episodic, source memory, divided attention, operation span in working memory, processing speed

source memory

recall of when, where, and how information was acquired

Operational span

measures working memory capacity

source monitoring errors

Misidentifying the origins of our knowledge

false memories

An invented or distorted recollection of an episodic event that did not actually happen.

misinformation effect

when episodic memories become less accurate because post-event information works backwards in time to distort the memory of the original even through retroactive interference

anterograde amnesia

a loss of the ability to create new memories after the event that caused the amnesia, leading to an inability to recall the recent past while long-term memories remain. (50 1st dates)

retrograde amnesia

a loss of access to retrograde memories before the onset of a disease

Korsakoff's Syndrome

Chronic memory disorder caused by severe defiency of thiamine most commonly caused by alchohol misuse.

nonassociative learning

a change in the magnitude of a response due to the repeated exposure to a stimulus

habituation

occurs when the response diminishes as the organism becomes accustomed to a repeated stimulus, nonassociative learning

dishabiuation

occurs when an organism that had become habituated to a stimulus recovers its responsiveness because of the removal of the stimulus and/or the experience of a different stimulus, nonassociative learning

sensitization

occurs when instead of exhibiting habituation, the organism demonstrates increasing responsiveness to a repeated stimulus associated with increased arousal.

associative learning

Classical conditioning, a process in which two stimuli are paired in such a way that the response to one of the stimuli changes

Pavlov Experiment and Classical Conditioning

The most famous example of classical conditioning was Pavlov's experiment with dogs, who salivated in response to a bell tone. Pavlov showed that when a bell was sounded each time the dog was fed, the dog learned to associate the sound with the presentation of the food.

unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus without previous conditioning

neutral stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

conditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

Acquisition phase of learning

The process of classical conditioning from the original unconditioned stimulus to the conditioned response.

first extinction

Decreasing the strength of the conditioned response with the conditioned stimulus alone

spontaneous recovery

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period followed by a second extinction

generalization

occurs when stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus elicit the conditioned response

discrimination

occurs when the conditioned stimulus is distinguished from other similar stimuli and is the only thing that elicts the conditioned response

BF skinner

A behaviorist who developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

positive reinforcement

adds something desirable to increase the likelihood of the behavior happening again

positive punishment

adds something undesirable to decrease the likelihood of the behavior happening again

negative reinforcement

takes away something undesirable to increase the likelihood of the behavior happening again

negative punishment

takes away something desirable to decrease likelihood of behavior happening again

dopamine reward pathway

The reward pathway begins in the ventral tegmental area and connects to the nucleus accumbens to release dopamine