Exotics Diseases/Conditions

Rabbit

Lagomorphs

Strict herbivores, fiber-rich diet Caecotrophy

Specialized dentition, continuously growing

Hing-gut (caecal) fermentation

Huge variety of breeds - different haircoat, external ear anatomy, body size

Lifespan 8-10 y

Social - should live in bonded pairs

Ferret

Carnivore (hypercarnivore) - need high protein diets

Domesticated from wild polecats (Mustela putorius)

Sexual dimorphism (males are larger)

Females are seasonal induced ovulators

Lifespan 6-8 y

Some variety of colour morphs (sable, albino, etc)

Guinea Pig

Rodents

Strict herbivores

Hystricomorphs - all teeth continuously growing

Hind gut fermentation (caecum) - mostly anaerobic gram +ve gut flora

Caecotrophy

Lifespan 5-6 y

Some variety of hair colour, length (hairless varieties as well)

Very social - should live in groups

Chinchillas

Hystricomorph Rodents - all teeth continuously growing

Strict herbivores

Adapted to cold, dry environments

Very dense haircoat

Lifespan 8-10 y (likely more)

Some variation in hair colour

Can fur or tail slip if roughly handled

Rats

Rodents

Myomorphs - only incisors grow continuously

Omnivores

Require relatively dry, well ventilated environments

Very social - should live in same-sex groups

Smart - need environmental enrichment

Lifespan 2-3y

Hamsters

Myomorph Rodents - only incisors grow continuously

Omnivores

3 common species kept as pets - Syrian, Roborovski, Russian

Solitary, non-social

Frequently kept as a children’s first pet

Lifespan 1-2 y

Frequently bite when handled

Degus

Hystricomorph rodents

Increasing popularity as pets

Small (180 – 350g)

Social

Hind-gut fermenters + coprophagy

Strict herbivores

Elodont dentition

Similar diet to Chinchillas

Lifespan 5-6y

Can tail slip, difficult to restrain

Gerbils

Most common species kept = Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus)

Desert adapted species

Social

Myomorph rodents

Lifespan 3-5y

Ventral scent gland

Pelleted diet

Can also slip their tail

African Pigmy Hedgehog

Insectivores

Arid areas of central and East Africa

Nocturnal

Spikes and typical curling behaviour

Solitary

Self-anointing/anting

Very large enclosures w/ hiding places

T = 22-32^oC

Offer dry food, some vegetables and insects

Lifespan 5-6y

European Hedgehog

Insectivores and other invertebrates

Western Europe

Nocturnal

Hibernate during winter months

Wild populations declining in the UK

Bearded Dragon

Pogona vitticeps

Medium-size lizards (400-700g)

Omnivores to herbivores as they mature

Terrestrial/dry environment - basking temp 33-40^oC, lower end temp 27^oC, UV-B exposure essential (vitamin D/calcium metabolism), UV-A (behaviour)

Kept as a single pet

Some variation in colour

Lifespan 8-12y

Leopard Gecko

Eublepharis macularius

Small lizards (60-100g)

Insectivores

Terrestrial/dry environment - 22-33^oC, UV-B exposure essential (vitamin D/calcium metabolism), UV-A (behaviour), hiding places w/ high humidity

Kept as single pet

Huge variation in colour/pattern

Lifespan 10-12y

Can shed their tails or skin when handled

Very delicate skin

Tortoises

Several species commonly kept - Horsfield’s (Agrionemys horsfieldii), Greek (Testudo graeca), Hermann’s (T. hermanni)

All strict herbivores

Small to medium sized

Terrestrial temperate to dry environment - 24-38^oC, UV-B exposure essential (vitamin D/calcium metabolism), UV-A (behaviour)

Very long lifespans (up to 80y)

Some individuals routinely hibernate

Can be kept in groups or single

Cornsnake

Pantherophis guttatus

Small to medium size snakes

Strict carnivores (rodent prey)

Terrestrial environment - 21-30^oC, UV-B exposure essential (vitamin D/calcium metabolism), UV-A (behaviour)

Lifespan 15-20y

Should be kept single

Huge variety of colour morphs

Budgie

Melopsittacus undulatus

In the wild, feeds on a variety of seeds.

As pets - balanced seed mixes, pellets, some greens

Very social and easy to breed

Appropriate cage size/design

Environmental enrichment - perches, toys, bathing

Variation in size/plumage

Lifespan 7-15 y

African Grey Parrot

Psittacus erithacus

Medium size (350-500g)

Feeds on variety of fruits, seeds and berries, pellets, mix vegetables/fruit, calcium supplements + UV-B?, UV-A for behaviour

Appropriate cage size/design

Environmental enrichment - perches, toys, bathing

Social interactions

Lifespan 20-30y

Domestic Chicken

Gallus domesticus

Most are ex-battery egg-laying hens

Mixed indoors (coop with perches + nesting boxes) and outdoors

Diet - commercial pellets, some grains/vegetables, insects/invertebrates, grit

Kept in all female groups +/- 1 male

Several breeds

Lifespan5-12y

Rabbit Vaccinations

Myxomatosis

Viral Haemorrhagic Disease 1 and 2

First dose from 5 weeks old, yearly booster

Ferret Vaccinations

Distemper (use dog vaccine but with sterile saline, not solvent) - first dose at 12 weeks, yearly booster

Rabies - travelling ferrets, first dose at 12 weeks, 18 month boosters

Anaphylactic vaccine reactions - 5-25 mins after any vaccine, hyperaemia, vomiting, hypersalivation, occasionally diarrhoea, dyspnoea, cyanosis
Treatment - adrenaline, diphenhydramine (can give prior to vaccine), dexamethasone, supportive care

Bird Vaccinations

Pigeons - avian pox, paramyxovirus

Canaries - avian pox

Poultry - can use commercial vaccine schedules

Oxyurids (pinworms)

Reptiles, rabbits, rodents

Considered commensals, but numbers increase in immunosuppressed patients

Treat if high egg count, ill patient - any wormer except Ivermectin

Ciliates

Commensals/low pathogenicity in Tortoises, herbivore lizards

Significant on other species

Detected with direct wet mounts

Wormers

Praziquantel - tapeworms, oral, injectable, spot-on

Oxfendazole - nematodes, oral

Fenbendazole - oral, toxicity (immunosuppression) in rabbits and birds

Ivermectin/Selamectin/Moxidectin - nematodes, external parasites, injectable, oral, spot-on, toxic to chelonians, skinks, and some snakes
(Moxidectin for heartworm prevention in ferrets)

External Parasite Control

Fleas - rabbits or ferrets, Imidacloprid

Flystrike - rabbits in summer, Cyromazine

Lice/mites - rodents in groups or rabbits, Ivermectin etc

Feather lice - some birds in groups, Permethrin powder/spray

Neutering Exotics

Rabbits, male guinea pigs, male rats

Guinea pigs and rodents have increased risk of anaesthesia and post-op complications

Female ferrets can stay in oestrus indefinitely → hyperoestrogenism → bone marrow suppression and aplastic anaemia

Neutering ferrets not recommended - gonads provide negative feedback to hypothalamus and suppresses adrenal function (androgen production, affects circadian rhythm/photoperiod)

Deslorelin implants for ferrets - apply every 18-24 months

Anaesthesia Considerations for Birds

Susceptible to hypothermia

Most species not domesticated - peri-anaesthetic stress

Small species have difficult venous access and monitoring limited

Uncuffed ET tubes - complete partially overlapping tracheal rings

Pigeons and ducks have a lot of tracheal mucus - can block ET tube

No diaphragm - reduced ventilation in dorsal recumbency as pectoral muscle weight on ribs

Air sacs compressed by effusions, enlarged organs, fat deposits

Have higher oxygen demands

Higher HR

Higher BP (90-180mmHg)

Renal portal system may affect drug administration and distribution

Fasting pre-op not advised in <500g patients, 2-4 hours for larger

African Grey Parrots especially prone to hypocalcaemia

Sedation / Anaesthesia for Birds

Midazolam and Butorphanol - reverse with Flumazenil

Alfaxalone (propofol limited as only IV)

Atropine - only in bradycardia/CPR situations (<30s window)

Sevoflurane usually preferred over isoflurane (slower induction, hypocalcemia, arrhythmias, hypertension)

Analgesia for Birds

Meloxicam

Carprofen

Gabapentin

Butorphanol

Tramadol

Buprenorphine

Fentanyl

(flunixin, ketoprofen, dicofenac - toxic)

Lidocaine or Bupivicane for local anaesthesia

Emergency Drugs for Birds (if crashed)

Atropine

Adrenaline

Dextrose

Emergency Presentations of Birds

Dyspnoea

Non-specific illness

Trauma/bleeding

Reproductive - egg binding, egg yolk coelomitis

Neurological - seizures, paresis/paralysis

Regurgitation

Prolapses

Anaesthesia Considerations for Reptiles

Hepatic portal system - drug administration/distribution altered

Diving reflex in aquatic reptiles - R to L shunt and bypassing pulmonary circuit, hold breath so don’t breath in gas anaesthesia

Hypoxia increases respiratory rate

Uncuffed ET tubes

Chelonians have gular movements (olfactory) - don’t confuse with RR

Fasting 2-3 hours for most, 1-2 days for snakes and chelonians

Sedation/Anaesthetics for Reptiles

Midazolam and Dexmedetomidine

Alfaxalone / Propofol

Isoflurane

Ketamine (snakes)

(Atipamezole/Flumazenil reversal)

Atropine (chelonians breath-holding)

Analgesia for Reptiles

Methadone

Tramadol

Morphine

Meloxicam

Lidocaine or Bupivicaine

(butorphanol has no analgesic effects)

Emergency Presentations of Reptiles

Trauma

Prolapses - bladder, cloacal, false

Reproductive

Neurological - stargazing, loss of righting reflex, tremors

Most ‘emergencies’ are chronic cases or unnoticed disease that recently decompensated

Anaesthesia Considerations in Exotic Mammals

Prey animals - stress

Hypoxia and breath holding common - obligate nasal breathers

Prone to hypothermia

IV access limited in most

ET tube placement difficult, uncuffed, lidocaine spray, or V-gel

Fasting not advised - don’t vomit, ferrets prone to hypoglycaemia

Difficult to monitor if small

Sedation / Anaesthesia for Exotic Mammals

Midazolam and Butorphanol

Ketamine and Medetomidine

Sevoflurane

Alfaxalone

Analgesia for Exotic Mammals

Meloxicam

Carprofen

Buprenorphine

Tramadol - questionable if works

Gabapentin

Maropitant

Lidoaine or Bupivicaine

Emergency Presentations of Rabbits

Gut stasis - fluids, analgesia, prokinetics (metoclopramide), feeding, supportive care

Trauma - fractures, bite wounds

Respiratory - URT, pneumonia, heart disease, neoplasia

Neuro - seizures, paresis/paralysis, sudden and progressive head tilt

Haematuria with straining

Sudden blepharospasm, buphthalmia, or exophthalmia

Flystrike

Emergency Presentations of Ferrets

Trauma

Frequent vomiting >24h

Non-specific illness with anorexia >24h

Neuro - seizures, ataxia, collapse, paralysis

Dyspnoea

Emergency Presentations in Rodents

Gut stasis

Dyspnea - especially Guinea pigs

Trauma

Neuro – seizures, collapse, paralysis

Non-specific illness

Urogenital - bleeding and straining/vocalizing, dystocia

Abnormal perineal discharge - ‘wet tail’, diarrhoea, intestinal prolapse etc

Myxomatosis in Rabbits

Leporipoxvirus

Naturally infects wild rabbits, spreads to domestic

Clinical Signs - eyelid thickening and purulent eye discharge, nodules on ears/lips/nares/eyelids/external genitalia, occasionally pneumonic signs, infertility, death by starvation and secondary infections

Treatment - euthanasia advised, stick isolation, risk of carriers

Vaccination and avoid wild rabbit contact

Shope Fibroma in Rabbits

Different Leporipoxvirus

Induces self-limiting fibromas/fibromatosis

Cross-immunity against Myxomatosis

Viral Haemorrhagic Disease (VHD) in Rabbits

Calicivirus - two strains

Highly infectious - urine, faeces, aerosols, biting insects

High mortality rates

Causes necrotising hepatitis, DIC, acute liver failure, fibrinous thrombi, haemorrhage, organ failure, death in 3-4 days

Clinical signs - fever, increased RR, collapse, hypotension, neuro signs, haemorrhages (not always)

<4 week old rabbits resistant to infection

Diagnosis - PCR, PM and histology

Treatment - euthanasia

Vaccination

Papillomatosis in Rabbits

Can refer to:
Shope papillomavirus - SCC-like neoplasia
Oral papillomavirus - benign wart-like growths, self-limiting
Ano-rectal papillomatosis - not viral induced, cauliflower masses that bleed easily

Pasteurellosis in Rabbits

‘Snuffles’

Pasteurella multocida - several strains, primary pathogen in immunosuppressed rabbits, secondary pathogen in abscesses

Produces endotoxin

Transmitted by direct contact and aerosols

Clinical Signs - rhinitis, pneumonia, genital infections, wounds and abscesses, dacryocystitis, otitis media/interna (head tilt), eye discharge if affecting lacrimal duct

Diagnosis - deep nasal swab for c&s, PCR

Treatment - isolate, antibiotics, supportive care

Treponema paraluiscuniculi in Rabbits

‘rabbit syphilis’

Genital infection - vertical and sexual transmission

Nodules, crusting lesion that can ulcerate on vulva/prepuce/lips/nostrils

Diagnosis - histology with special silver stains

Treatment - penicillin SC (never oral beta-lactams in rabbits)

Bacterial Enteritis in Rabbits

Several possible pathogens

Tyzzler’s disease - 6-12 wo rabbits, diarrhoea, sudden death, intestinal fibrosis/stenosis and liver necrosis if chronic

Clostridial Endotoxaemia - overgrowth of Clostridium spp producing Iotatoxin, due to starch rich diets (caecum overload), stress, oral antibiotics (beta-lactams, -mycin)

Others - Salmonella, E coli, Campylobacter etc

Treatment - fluids, high fibre and low sugar/starch diet, antibiotics (fluoroquinolones, metronidazole), analgesics, cholestyramine (reduces toxin absorption), maropitant

Coccidiosis in Rabbits

Intestinal - mixed Eimeria spp, often if young or in groups, diarrhoea ± blood, weight loss

Hepatic - Eimeria stiedae, diarrhoea and weight loss, hepatomegaly, jaundice, higher mortality

Treatment - Toltrazuril, TMP and sulphonamides, supportive care, diet managment, reduce stress

Intestinal cases become immune

Hepatic cases have chronic changes

Tapeworms in Rabbits

Rabbits are intermediate hosts - carry larval forms (not detected on faecal samples)

Cysticercus pisiformis - peritoneal cavity, liver

Coenurus serialis - SC tissues

Echinococcus granulosus

Mites in Rabbits

Psoroptes cuniculis - ear mites

Cheyletiella parasitovorax - skin mites

Leporacarus gibbus - fur mites

Diagnosis via skin scrapes, hair plucks

Frequently secondary to grooming problems (dental disease, arthritis, spinal disease) or immunosuppression

Treatment - Selemectin, Moxidectin

Flystrike in Rabbits

Maggots of Lucilia spp or Calliphora spp flies

Tail base and perineum most commonly affected

Risk factors - outdoors, high temps, soiled skin, overweight, difficulty grooming, uneaten caecotrophs

Very quick progression 3-4 days

Treatment - remove maggots and clip under sedation, Ivermectin SC, bathe in dilute iodine solution, dry area, analgesia, supportive care, treat underlying cause

Prevention - Cyromazine spot-on, good husbandry, hygiene, diet

Encephalitozoonosis in Rabbits

Encephalitozoon cuniculi - microsporidia, intracellular, zoonosis

Most subclinical - clinical signs develop when infected cells rupture with spores

Transmission via inhalation, ingestion, vertical

Neurological presentation - head tilt, nystagmus, facial paralysis, paresis/paralysis, muscle weakness, seizures

Eye lesions - phacoclastic uveitis, lens opacity/rupture, cataracts

CKD - PUPD, urine scald, progressive weight loss

Diagnosis - serology IgM or IgG, PCR of urine (shedding intermittent)

Treatment - Fenbendazole, NSAIDs, fluoroquinolones or doxycycline, eye drops, midazolam if seizures, supportive care

Hair Matts in Rabbits

Long or densely haired breeds

Frequently have secondary bacterial dermatitis

Can be painful

Treatment - clip under sedation, analgesia, bathe skin, treat underlying problem

Bacterial Dermatitis in Rabbits

Most secondary to other conditions - urine scalding, skin fold dermatitis, epiphora/blocked tear ducts, dental disease and drooling, matted hair

Common isolates - S aureus, P multocida, P aeruginosa

Superficial to deep pyoderma, occasionally abscess formation

Painful

Treatment - Meloxicam, antibiotics, (don’t use steroids in rabbits, immunosuppression), hair clipping, keep dry, topical chlorohexidine, fusidic acid, silver sulfadiazine, correct risk factor

Pododermatitis in Rabbits

Avascular necrosis/pressure sores of plantar surfaces (can affect front paws too) - guard hairs not protecting

Painful

Risk factors - obesity, inactivity, inadequate flooring, loss of plantar guard hairs, concurrent conditions, contaminated bedding

Can get skin hyperkeratosis, secondary bacterial infections, osteomyelitis, osteoarthritis, displacement of superficial digital flexor tendon

Treatment - relieve pressure (bedding, bandaging, exercise), analgesia (meloxicam, gabapentin), antibiotics, keep clean and dry, surgery if chronic/abscesses/debride necrotic tissue, euthanasia

External Ear Disease in Rabbits

Easy build up of cerumen (wax) as kinked and narrow canal and ear base diverticulum (gap between tragus and annular cartilage)

Common Signs - head shaking, pruritus, discharge, increased cerumen, ear base swelling, facial paralysis (facial nerve in close proximity)

Common diseases:
Aural haematoma/oedema
Traumatic Lacerations
Neoplasia
Otitis externa - lop breeds, clean, often chronic, may need TECA etc

Urinary Disorders in Rabbits

Common - cystitis, uroliths, CKD, AKI

Common signs - weight loss, anorexia, gut stasis, pollakiuria/dysuria, pain when urinating, PUPD, urinary incontinence, haematuria, urine scald

Alkaline urine - calcium crystals normal

Limited capacity to excrete H+ so sensitive to systemic acidosis

Stress reduces renal blood flow

Calcium mainly regulated by the kidneys - excrete large amounts of Ca in urine as excess absorbed in GI tract

‘Sludgy urine’ in Rabbits

When calcium builds up in bladder

Can lead to cystitis, uroliths, incontinence etc

Common signs - dysuria/pollakiuria, painful urination, PUPD, incontinence, urine scalding, haematuria, abnormal urine

Treatment - analgesia, antibiotics, manage urine scald, clean bedding, increase exercise, increase water intake, reduce calcium intake, catheterise and flush bladder

Urolithiasis in Rabbits

Calcium carbonate, oxalate, phosphate

Predisposing factors - urinary obstruction, reduced water intake, reduced urine outflow, high calcium diet

Diagnosis - bloods (check renal failure), radiographs, ultrasound

Treatment - cystotomy, flush back to bladder, nephrectomy, analgesia, ACE inhibitors

Acute Kidney Injury in Rabbits

Many causes - congenital, infections, renal amyloidosis, urinary obstruction (sludge, urolith, etc), renal calcification (2ary to high Ca²⁺ blood levels), toxins, stress and reduced renal blood flow

USG isothenuric

Bloods - increased urea and creatinine and phosphate, normal calcium

Treatment - fluids, reduce stress, analgesia, treat underlying cause

Chronic Kidney Disease in Rabbits

Many causes - congenital, infections, neoplasia, renal amyloidosis, E. cuniculi (nephritis, fibrosis), urinary obstruction (sludge, urolith, etc), renal calcification (2ary to high Ca²⁺ blood levels), toxins, stress and reduced renal blood flow, degenerative

Clinical Signs - PUPD, anorexia, weight loss

USG variable

Bloods - increased urea and creatinine, usually increased calcium and phosphate, anaemia

Treatment - fluids SC, increase water intake, ACE inhibitors, phosphate binders, treat main cause, low calcium diet

Vestibular Disease in Rabbits

Common neurological problem

Clinical Signs - head tilt, ataxia, paresis, rolling, facial nerve paralysis, nystagmus

Possible causes - E cuniculi, pasteurelosis, toxoplasma, neoplasia, head trauma

Peripheral disease - lesions on cochlea, middle ear or vestibular nerve, only horizontal and rotational nystagmus

Central disease - brainstem lesions, vertical/positional nystagmus ± intention tremors, hemiparesis, E cuniculi possible cause

Treatment - meloxicam, antibiotics, prochlorperazine (anti-vertigo), Fenbendazole if E cuniculi, exercise in padded environment, reduce stress, feeding, monitor for corneal ulcers

‘Floppy Rabbit Syndrome’

Generalised muscle weakness → paresis → paralysis

Many possible causes - neurological, hepatic lipidosis, hypokalaemia, toxicity, E cuniculi, myasthenia gravis, vitamin E/selenium deficiency

Self-limiting if not an above cause, 2-3 days with supportive care

Uterine Adenocarcinoma in Rabbits

Most common neoplasia in rabbits

Slow growing, locally invasive, ± distant metastasis

Clinical Signs - haematuria, palpation

Treatment - spay

Bile Duct Adenoma/Adenocarcinoma in Rabbits

Usually secondary to bile duct irritation and hyperplasia - Eimeria stiedae

Often incidental finding on ultrasound or PM

Could surgically remove if solitary mass

Embryonal Nephroma in Rabbits

Benign, slow growing

Not associated with renal dysfunction or failure

Often incidental finding of ultrasound or PM

Treatment - monitoring, nephrectomy

Lymphoma in Rabbits

Most cases not accompanied with leukaemia

Can affect any age group

Usually multicentric - including the dermis and eye

Non-specific clinical signs - weight loss, lethargy, palpable abdominal masses or lymph nodes

Diagnosis - cytology, ultrasound, radiography, haematology

Multiple chemotherapy protocols described

Thymoma in Rabbits

Clinical signs - respiratory changes, heart sounds muffled, bilateral exophthalmia

Can be difficult to differentiate from Thymic lymphoma

Diagnosis - radiography, ultrasound, cytology

Treatment - surgical, chemotherapy, radiotherapy

Diarrhoea in Guinea Pigs

Uncommon in adults - young/immunocompromised patients

Old males - faecal impactions secondary to loss of muscle tone on anal sphincter

Due to:
Diet - inadequate fibre/high simple carbohydrates
Bacterial infection - Tyzzer’s disease, salmonella, E coli, Yersinia
Dysbiosis/enterotoxaemia - after incorrect use of antibiotics, clostridial growth
Cryptosporidium wrairi
Eimeria caviae
Balantidium caviae
Hepatopathies
Dental Disease

Diagnosis - faecal flotation, faecal culture, bloods, abdominal US

Urolithiasis in Guinea Pigs

Common

90% Calcium carbonate

Secondary cystitis and UTI is common

Frequently recurrent

Clinical Signs - haematuria, dysuria, pain/vocalisation during urination, anorexia, lethargy, hunched posture

Diagnosis - radiography, ultrasound

Treatment - <5mm can pass unaided, analgesia (meloxicam, maropitant), GA and flush/cystotomy, reduce calcium in diet, potassium citrate (urine acidifier)

Cystitis in Guinea Pigs

Often 2ary to urolithiasis

Same clinical signs as urolithiasis (without the uroliths)

Can be sterile or bacterial

Diagnosis - urinalysis +/- urine c&s, US scan, antibiotics (Marbofloxacin, TMP + sulfa), Meloxicam ± Maropitant

Ovarian Cysts in Guinea Pigs

Very common in older intact females

Serous cysts - non-functional, develop spontaneously, don’t respond to LH, only clinical signs if too large

Follicular cysts - follicles that fail to ovulate, hormonally active, respond to LH, variable clinical signs (non-pruritic flank alopecia, mammary gland hyperkeratosis)

If Clinical Signs - anorexia, lethargy, abdominal distension and discomfort, soft tissue mass palpable

Diagnosis - ultrasound

Treatment - hCG x2 14 days apart (follicular cysts), GA and spay, drainage of cysts (refill quickly)

Lymphoid Neoplasia in Guinea Pigs

Common

3 forms - multicentric and highly malignant, epitheliotropic T cell, retroviral leukaemia

Diagnosis - cytology of peripheral lymph glands/skin, haematology, US scan

Treatment - Lomustine, L-asparaginase, palliative prednisolone, euthanasia

Poor prognosis

Skin Disease in Guinea Pigs

Mites/lice

Ringworm/Dermatophytiasis - crust lesions and alopecia, peri-ocular/nostrils, pruritis if secondary infection, zoonotic

Cervical lymphadenitis - Strep equi zooepidemicus, abscesses of cervical lymph nodes after oral abrasions, causes pneumonia, otitis media, septicaemia, surgical excision or lance and flush, antibiotics

Sebaceous lumps - old boars, rump and lower back, cysts/adenoma/trichoepithelioma/trichofolliculoma, surgical removal

Pododermatitis

Other Conditions in Guinea Pigs

Hyperthyroidism

Hyperadrenocorticism

Insulinoma

Fibrous osteodystrophy

Hypovitaminosis C

Mammary gland neoplasia and mastitis

Pneumonia

Heart disease – most common pericardial effusion, DCM

Respiratory Disease Complex in Rats

URT infection - sneezing, nasal discharge, porphyrin staining around nostrils, noisy breathing

LRT infection - increased RR and effort, noisy breathing, crackles, muffled heart sounds

Risk if stress/immunosuppression, environmental e.g. cage ventilation

Due to:
Viral - Sendai virus, paramyxovirus
Bacterial - Mycoplasma pulmonis, Strep pneumonis, Cillia-associated Bacillus, Haemophilus spp
Fungal - Pneumocystis carinii

Diagnosis - clinical suspicion ± radiography

Treatment - antibiotics >3w (doxycycline, marbofloxacin, azithromycin), meloxicam, nebulisation, furosemide if secondary lung oedema

Mammary Gland Neoplasia in Rats

Most common neoplasia

Mammary fibroadenoma - most common, benign, associated with reproductive changes

Mammary adenocarcinoma - malignant

Treatment - surgical removal (mammary strip), spay, Cabergoline (prolactin antagonist) to slow progression, palliative, euthanasia

Zymbal’s Gland Tumours in Rats

Zymbal gland – specialized sebaceous gland on rat’s ear canal

Locally invasive carcinomas

Frequently mistaken for abscesses or ear infections

Often ulcerate

Treatment - palliative (surgical removal difficult/impossible)

Pituitary Adenomas in Rats

Neurological signs - paresis/paralysis on FLs, vision loss, ataxia

Progressive

Diagnosis - MRI or CT scan

Treatment - surgery not realistic due to location, Cabergoline, NSAIDs

Skin Disease in Hamsters

Often present with alopecia, pruritus, masses, ulcers and scabs, inflamed area of skin

Stress/immunosuppression often a trigger

Demodex criceti, aurati - Ivermectin SC
Hyperadrenocorticism - look for PUPD, cortisol levels
Epitheliotropic Lymphoma - syrians, skin biopsy, prednisolone
Bacterial dermatitis
Hypothyroidism
Skin Abscesses
Skin Neoplasia - melanomas, fibromas, papillomas
Ringworm
Other external parasites - Ivermectin SC

Treatment - meloxicam, antibiotics (TMP + sulpha, marbofloxacin)

Everted Cheek Pouches in Hamsters

More common in dwarf species

Possible causes - food impaction, inflammation, abscess, neoplasia

Treatment - GA and examine, flush/clean, reposition, suture, ± NSAIDs, antibiotics

‘Wet tail’ in Hamsters

Enteropathies with diarrhoea

Due to:
Lawsonia intracellularis
Enterotoxaemia (Clostridium difficile) after inappropriate AB use
Tyzzer’s disease - C. piliforme
Diet - sudden changes, higher water content
GI parasites - protozoa, pinworms

Severe cases can lead to rectal prolapse +/- intussusception

Diagnosis - faecal mount, gram stain, culture, PCR

Treatment - supportive, SC fluids and glucose, thermal support, antibiotics, feeding

Hepatic Cysts in Hamsters

Occasionally found in older Syrian hamsters

Development defects of bile ducts

Clinical Signs - abdominal enlargement, dyspnoea, diffuse alopecia, lethargy, weight loss

Diagnosis - US scan

Treatment - surgical removal, cyst aspiration (US guided or intra-surgical), palliative care if multiple cysts present

Other Conditions in Hamsters

Dilated Cardiomyopathy

Atrial thromboembolism

Pyometra and endometritis

Uterine neoplasia

Bladder uroliths

CKD

Dental Disease in Rabbits/Rodents

Risk Factors:
Lack of fibre and abrasive food items
Congenital malocclusion
Reduced chewing time/cycles
Trauma
Metabolic demands – e.g. pregnancy, lactation can affect dental growth
Hypovitaminosis D/Metabolic disease

General Clinical Signs - anorexia, selective appetite, weight loss, low BCS, unkept haircoat, gut stasis, excessive salivation, contact dermatitis on chin, lower neck and front paws

Molar Overgrowth Signs - epiphora and dacryocystitis, abscesses (mandibular, maxillary, retrobulbar)

Incisor Overgrowth Signs - obvious overgrowth, abrasions, wounds around lips

Diagnosis - oral exam (otoscope, rigid endoscope, ± GA), skull radiographs

Treatment - review husbandry and diet, more regular health checks, meloxicam, cranial nerve/splash block, surgical correction (crown reduction, incisor extraction), treat wounds and abscesses

Dacryocystitis in Rabbits/Rodents

Occlusion of lacrimal duct by overgrown upper molars/inflammation

Clinical Signs - contact periocular dermatitis, recurrent/chronic eye discharge

Diagnosis - radiographs

Treatment - long term Meloxicam, ± antibiotic eyedrops, lacrimal duct flush under sedation

Retrobulbar Abscessation in Rabbits/Rodents

Affects upper molars

Abscess leads to progressive exophthalmia

Ddx - intra-ocular disease (e.g. glaucoma), retrobulbar neoplasia

Diagnosis - radiographs

Treatment - abscess marsupialization, dental extractions, frequently requires enucleation

Distemper in Ferrets

Morbillivirus (same that infects dogs) - several strains

Almost always fatal in ferrets

Transmission - aerosols (respiratory secretions), direct contact with urine/faeces/skin, fomites

Clinical Signs - lethargy, anorexia, fever, erythema, hyperkeratosis and crusts on footpads/face, dyspnoea, tachypnoea, cough, muco-purulent conjunctivitis, paresis, ataxia, seizures

Diagnosis - unvaccinated, swabs for PCR or antigen detection, PM and histopathology

Treatment - often euthanasia, supportive care (meloxicam, antibiotics, hyperimmune serum from another ferret, vitamin A and C)

Prevention - vaccination, avoid contact with unvaccinated dogs/ferrets, routine cleaning/hygiene

Influenza in Ferrets

Transmission - aerosols (from owners)

Clinical signs - fever, URT signs, conjunctivitis, occasionally affects other organs

Diagnosis - antigen detection (availability?)

Treatment - usually self-limiting (5-7 days), supportive and meloxicam, antivirals

Aleutian Disease in Ferrets (ADV)

Parvovirus

Immunocomplex-mediated disease

Older ferrets (2-4 yo)

Can also infect Minks

Transmission - aerosols/direct contact with any body fluid

Clinical Signs - death without any clinical signs, chronic wasting disease, tremors, ataxia, paresis/paralysis, seizures, organ enlargement, anaemia, melena, dyspnea, weight loss

Diagnosis - low albumin, high gammaglobulin, low PCV, PCR, serum antibody

Treatment - supportive, immunosuppressive prednisolone/ciclosporin, melatonin implants (scavenge free radicals, stimulates antioxidant enzymes)

Lymphoma in Ferrets

Common

Types - T cell, B cell, Cutaneous epitheliotropic, gastric

Diagnosis - anaemia, hypoalbuminemia, hyperproteinaemia, hyperglobulinemia, ultrasound, cytology, biopsy

Treatment - chemotherapy (modified COP, CHOP, L-asparaginase), prednisolone, radioation

Insulinoma in Ferrets

Benign

Affects pancreatic β-cells (insulin production)

Unknown cause

Clinical signs - nausea/ptyalism, lethargy/weakness, ataxia, seizures, signs often resolve after being offered food

Diagnosis - hypoglycaemia (after 4h starving), plasma insulin concentration, ultrasound

Treatment - surgery (nodulectomy, partial pancreaectomy), dextrose, fluids with glucose, midazolam, prednisolone, diazoxide

Adrenal Gland Disease in Ferrets

Hyperadrenocorticism (hyperaldosteronism / hyperadrenocorticism, hyperandrogenism)

Due to surgical neuter (removes negative feedback on adrenal cortex), abnormal photoperiod/circadian rhythms (gonadotropins are produced during hours of light), genetics

Clinical Signs - progressive symmetrical alopecia (starts at tail), pruritus, vulvar enlargement (spayed females), urinary blockage from prostate enlargement (males), sexual behaviour and typical odour (males)

Diagnosis - ultrasound, serum/plasma concentrations of hormones

Treatment - adrenalectomy, Deslorelin implants (suppress release of gonadotropins and adrenal gland stimulation)

Gastritis in Ferrets

Common

Clinical Signs - vomiting (vs regurgitation), anorexia, lethargy, melena (GI ulceration is frequent)

Due to - foreign bodies, toxin ingestion, NSAID treatment, Helicobacter mustelae infections, neoplasia, azotaemia/renal disease, other diseases can also cause nausea

Treatment - fluids, anti-emetics, frequent/small meals, highly digestible/high protein diet

Helicobacter mustelae in Ferrets

Chronic gastritis + mucosal ulceration

Triggered by stress

Possible progression to gastric adenocarcinoma / lymphoma

Ulceration → melena, severe anaemia, shock

Diagnosis - gastric wall biopsies ± PCR

Treatment - antibiotics (amoxicillin and metronidazole), bysmuth citrate, sucralphate, famotidine, omeprazole, fluids and supportive care

Diarrhoea in Ferrets

Difficult to differentiate between small or large intestinal diarrhoea

Short GIT transit time (3h) – frequent defecation

Due to:
Salmonella
Campylobacter
Ferret Coronavirus Enteric Form - green profuse, tylosin
Ferret Coronavirus Systemic Form - progressive pyogranulomatous inflammation, weight loss, abdominal masses
Rotavirus - kits, high morbidity and mortality
Distemper
Inflammatory Bowel Disease - lymphoplasmocytic infiltration, ± vomiting, ultrasound and biopsy, diet, prednisolone, azathioprine
Neoplasia

Cardiac Disease in Ferrets

Common - DCM, HCM, aortic valve regurgitation, myocarditis, neoplasia, heartworm

Ferrets <3yo

Clinical Signs - lethargy, exercise intolerance, weight loss, coughing, dyspnoea, ascites, organ enlargement, heart murmur, muffled heart sounds, arrhythmias, hind limb weakness (not related to thromboembolism), pulse deficits, hypothermia, HR180-250bpm, sinus arrhythmia

Emergency Management - O2 supplementation, sedation, furosemide, draining

Diagnosis - bloods, urinalysis, radiography, ECG, echo, heartworm testing, cardiac troponin I

Treatment - Furosemide, ACEi (Benzapril), Pimobendam, Spironolactone, Dilitiazem, Atenolol, pacemakers

Common Health Problems in Hedgehogs

Skin disease – alopecia/loss of spines, external parasites, ringworm, wounds, neoplasia

Oral and dental disease - weight loss, anorexia, excessive salivation, blood/pus discharge, tartar, periodontal disease, oral neoplasia e.g. SCC

Heart disease

Neoplasia

Wobbly Hedgehog Syndrome - demyelinating paralysis, ataxia, seizures, euthanasia

Enteritis and diarrhoea

Trauma - bites, RTAs, fractures

Orphaned hoglets

Malnourishment - wild hedgehogs in autumn/winter

Metabolic Bone Disease in Reptiles

Due to - inadequate UV-B exposure, calcium deficiency, vitamin D3 deficiency, other conditions (e.g. CKD) affecting calcium metabolism

More common in young growing individuals, herbivore species

Clinical Signs - fibrous osteodystrophy lesions (swelling, lost calcium density), weakness, tongue paralysis, pliable jaw, soft shell, muscle tremors, seizures, abnormal shell shape, pathological fractures

Diagnosis - radiographs, biochemistry (Ca, P, renal function)

Treatment - vitamin D3, calcium gluconate, calcitonin, review husandary and diet

Hypovitaminosis A in Reptiles

Squamous metaplasia of different epitheliums

Terrapins and aquatic turtles, unbalanced diet

Clinical Signs - blepharitis, keratoconjunctivitis, overgrown nails and beak (chelonians), stomatitis, rhinitis, aural abscesses, retained shed

Treatment - vitamin A, surgical removal of conjunctival debris and aural abscesses, antibiotic eyedrops if eye lesions, review husbandry and diet