annaspradling's Pathology Exam 1 (quizlet import)

Pathology

study of disease

lysosomes

cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell

Golgi apparatus

transport system for nutrients

Endoplasmic Reticulum

extension of nucleus that contains RNA and DNA

Mitochondria

organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production; allowing for metabolism to happen

Nucleus

A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction

Cytoplasm

A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended

plasma membrane

2 layered membrane that acts as a selective barrier to allow on;y certain things in and out

Homeostasis

process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment

Hypoxia

a type of cell injury that is deficient in the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues;

Anoxia

cell injury that has no oxygen

Toxin Exposure

a type of cell injury that our body is exposed to that are harmful to us

Microbial Pathogens

a type of cell injury that causes, viruses, fungi, parasites, prions

Inflammation and Immune reactions

how our body body reacts to different pathogens

genetic and metabolic disturbances

many genetic diseases cause disturbances to metabolism

Distinguish between reversible cell injury and irreversible cell injury

Reversible means cells can be reversed back into homeostasis while irreversible cannot

Atrophy

decreased in cell size due to age

Hypertrophy

increase in cell size due to exercise

Hyperplasia

increase in number of cells

Metaplasia

cell transformation of replacing one mature cell for another that is not normally presented into the tissue, it rarely leads to neoplasia.

Neoplasia

uncontrolled cell growth of abnormal cell growth that leads to cancer

Dysplasia

increased amount of immature cell types that are often abnormal; precursor to neoplasia

Antracosis

lung disease caused by the inhalation of coal dust

Hemosiderosis

blood products that remain and stain the skin

Lipid

Fatty liver, eventually increase in size and go into cyrosis

What are the 2 theories of cellular aging?

1. Wear and Tear: using your body throughout life until it does not work anymore

2. Genetic hypothesis: cells fail but the process and timing is different for each person

necrosis

cell death occurs

Coagulative necrosis

most common; anoxia

liquefactive necrosis

can be a primary or secondary state; primary occurs most often in the brain; tissues "dissolve" and become soft and liquified (semifluid mush);

caseous necrosis

special form of necrosis where there are coagulative and limited liquefactive components; TB and Fungi

Enzymatic fat necrosis

form of liquefactive necrosis that is limited to fat tissue; often foundaround the pancreas post trauma

Apoptosis

programmed cell death

What are some complications of necrosis?

1. Wet Gangrene: coagulative necrosis; diabetes

2. Dry Gangrene: coagulative necrosis; frostbite

3. Calcification Deposits: calcium salts are deposited within necrotic tissues

physiologic apoptosis (give example)

things are supposed to happen to people; separating fingers in the fetus

pathologic apoptosis

things that are not supposed to happen; liver cells that are infected with hepatitis

lack of apoptosis

physiologic apoptosis does not occur it can result in congenital deformation (Syndactyly, Intestinal Atresia) OR a accumulation/ build up of waste products cells that should not remain (Follicular Lymphoma)

cellular differentiation

each cell has a specific function

cancer

any malignant growth or tumor caused by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division and metastasis

Neoplasm

abnormal growth of cells that results in a mass

oncology

speciality that studies and works to develop treatments of cancer

clinical oncologist

directly involve with working with patients; ones meeting with patient and looking at them.

radiation oncologist

specialized in radiation treatment of cancer

Experimental Oncologist

people who work in labs and determine what chemo works with a type of cancer

Cancer epidemiologist

looks at cancer in a population/ community

Translation Science

Bedside->bench -> bedside

Doctors who are working with patients beside, then take the information from the patient and try to tweak the treatment that works best for that specific patient. Then they go back to the patient and see if it works or not.

What is the difference between clinical and histologic classifications of tumors?

Clinical classification is based on what is going on with patients such as sign, symptoms, and outcomes.

Histological Classification is what doctors look at the tissue microscopically

Describe a benign tumor's characteristics

- Well defined borders and contained capsule

- Mass cells are like surrounding tissue

- Cells appear uniform/homogenous

o Nuclei are uniform with even distribution of chromatin

o Low Nucleus: Cytoplasm Ratio (Little nucleus with a lot of cytoplasm)

- Normal Number of chromosomes

- Retains some of designated functions

Describe a malignant tumor's characteristics

- W/o a capsule, very irregular borders

- Mass cells are very different from surrounding tissue

- Cells are heterogenous (differences in cell shape and nucleus)

o Nuclei are pleomorphic with increased amount of chromatin that is distributed unevenly

o High nucleus: Cytoplasm Ratio (big nucleus and little to no cytoplasm)

- Aneuploidy: abnormal number and structural differences in chromosomes due to mitosis dysfunction.

- Focus on rapid growth and production.

explain what a mass effect is (give example)

Mass effect is where the mass is affecting another structure on the body such as compressing a vessel.

Explain what malignant potential means relative to neoplasia

Some benign tumors have malignant potential which means that if they reach a certain size that indicates uncontrolled growth they could switch from being benign to malignant. Some benign tumors cause issues from mass effects/ just by being present.

Compare and contrast the histological differences between benign and malignant tumors

Benign tumors

- Limited growth.

- Some benign tumors have malignant potential

- Some benign tumors cause issues from mass effects/ just by being present.

Malignant Tumors

- Malignant tumors will show uncontrollable growth with likelihood of Malignant cells, without intervention, will eventually kill their host.

metastasis

spread of tumor cells from primary location to other/secondary sites; this will increase cancer

What are the 3 pathways for malignant cells to take to reach secondary location?

1. Blood: cancer cells enter the blood stream to travel somewhere else.2. Lymphatics: cancer spreads into the lymphatic system. If this happens, lymph nodes become cancerous.

3. Body Cavity/Spaces: hematogenous spread: direct seeding

What must be present for metastasis to occur?

1. Evade the Immune system: cancer cells do not want to be killed so they invade the immune system.

2. Angiogenesis: Cancer cells form their own blood supply to obtain nutrients, oxygen and excrete wastes.

Define the following components of the metastatic cascade: intravasation, dissemination, extravasation.

Intravasation: cells that enter the blood supply or lymphatic system

Dissemination: Moves and travels around

Extravasation: Exiting out of the blood stream and go to colonize into another location.

Explain how tumors are graded and staged

Grading: Indicates Differentiation; cell appearance underneath a microscope.

• I = well differentiated: probably benign

• II = moderately differentiated: either benign or malignant

• III = undifferentiated: malignant

Staging: Measures the extent of the spread of the tumor from primary location

• Tumor Size

• Lymph Node Involvement: determines a form of metasises

• Metastases: finding in other organs.

Why is it important to grade and stage tumors?

It is important for tumors to be graded and stage because this will tell you what treatment options are useful for the patient and the patient outcome/ survival rate.

Differences between endogenous and exogenous causes of cancer

Endogenous Causes: something that comes within such as genes from descendants.

Exogenous Causes: something that happens on the outside of the body such as chemicals (drugs), UV light, X-rays, Viruses (HPV)

Transfection

genes are acting like a virus and invading healthy cells

Oncogenes

genes that cause cancer by blocking the normal controls on cell reproduction

proto-oncogenes

beginning of an oncogene

Describe ways proto-oncogenes can be transformed into oncogenes

a. Point Mutation (miscoding of a protein that is part of DNA); Hereditary Cancer

b. Gene Amplification (proliferation of the proto-oncogenes)

c. Chromosomal Rearrangement (misplacement of chromosomal parts that results in either overexpression of proto-oncogenes and/or under-expression of the normal cells); Hereditary Cancer?

d. Insertion of the viral genome (when the proteins that are part of normal cell operation become dysregulated, the cell can become neoplastically transformed)

what is the importance of tumor suppressor genes?

These are a part of normal cells that have genetic protection against oncogenes, if we do not have enough of these then we can develop cancer.

What are the local symptoms of neoplasia?

Local Symptoms:

a. Mass Effect on surrounding normal tissues

b. Location: is it internal, is it around lymph nodes, etc

Epidemiology of Cancer

the study of cancer in human populations

Autograft

patient donates a transplate to themselves such as skin, hari, leg veins, etc.

allograft

organs and/or tissues from a donor that are transplated into a recipient.

what type of donors can be apart of an allograft?

Living donors or Deceased donors

____ are the best donors

siblings

Xenograft

organs/tissue from nonhuman species and transplanted into human recipients

Hyperacute rejection

recipient antibodies do not match with donors antigens; during surgery will have to remove immediately due to thrombosis

Acute Rejection

develops after several weeks when unmatched antigens cause a reaction

Chronic rejection

antibody mediated vascular damage. Months to years after. Irreversible.

graft versus host reaction

An attack against a patient's body cells by lymphocytes received in a bone marrow transplant.

What happens to someone if they get the wrong blood type?

If stopped quickly, minor effects such as chills and a fever

if not stopped, massive hemolysis = shock, possible death and acute renal failure.

autoimmune disease

a disease in which the immune system attacks the organism's own normal cells

Why does it take patients years to be diagnosed with an autoimmune disease?

Because patients symptoms are not specific to a certain autoimmune disease

immunodeficiency diseases

disease in which is wiping out the immune system; HIV-AIDS

How are immunodeficiencies acquired?

Due to infection, metabolic diseases, cancer treatment.

Amyloidosis

a metabolic disorder marked by amyloid deposits in organs and tissue; kidneys, adrenals, liver,heart

antigens

any substance that can cause a specific immune response

Antibodies

proteins (Ig class) secreted by plasma cells to react to antigens

Hypersensitivity reactions

when there is an abnormal immune response to outside antigens and/or "self" antigens

Immune Complexes

when antibodies bind to antigens

Distinguish between innate and acquired immunity

Innate immunity is immunity that you are born with; they have nonspecific cells meaning they do not distinguish different types of invaders

Acquired Immunity is immunity that you acquire over time and have specific antigens to certain pathogens

List and describe the cells involved in immunity

Lymphocytes: Derived from bone marrow pre-lymphoid stem cells. white blood cells

T lymphocytes (mature in thymus) B lymphocytes (reside in bone marrow).

Plasma Cells

Fully differentiated B lymphocytes that produce antibodies in RER

Distinguish between T and B Lymphocytes including any subsets

T lymphocytes: Mature in thymus; most abundant lymphocytes

- 85-90% of lymphocytes have T cell receptor which links to CD3 on the cell membranes.

- 10-15% are without are the natural killer cells.

B lymphocytes: Reside primarily in bone marrow

- Produce antibodies

- Differentiate into plasma cells by antigens.

Explain the importance of the TCR-CD3 link.

It is important for recognizing antigens

Describe Natural Killer cells.

They start the innate immune reactions; react to cells infected by viruses and kill tumor cells and transplanted foreign cells

What are the 5 different antibodies.

IgG, IgM, IgA,IgD,IgE

IgG

Smallest; most abundant; increases with each exposure to an antigen; crosses placenta; helps with bacterial phagocytosis

IgM

Largest; first to appear after immunization; job is to neutralize microorganisms.

IgA

Found in blood but more abundant in mucosal secretions, breast milk and gut.

IgD

Found on B cells, not released into blood; helps with activation of B cells

IgE

allergic reactions

Type 1 hypersensitivity

IgE mediated hypersensitivity Anaphylactic or atopic reactions

Ex: Hay fever

Type 2 hypersensitivity

IgM or IgA Cytotoxic antibody-mediated reactions EX blood transfusion reactions

Type 3 hypersensitivity

immune complex mediated reactions Ex: systemic lupus erythematosus

Type 4 hypersensitivity

cell mediated delayed-type reactions Ex: tuberculosis

what are the systemic symptoms of neoplasia?

Systemic Symptoms: if it really malignant :

c. Weakness:

d. Weight Loss: drops for no reason

e. Anorexia: they do not have an appetite

f. Paraneoplastic Syndromes