ap government beginning of year

Majority Rule

A fundamental democratic principle requiring that the majority's view be respected.

Checks and Balances

Feature of the Constitution that requires each branch of the federal government to obtain the consent of the others for its actions; limits the power of each branch

Unitary System

System of government in which all power is invested in a central government

Confederation

A system of government in which most power is at the regional (state) level and the central government is weak

Federalism

A system of government in which two or more levels of government have significant policymaking power over the same people and territory.

Express Powers

Powers specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution

Implied Powers

Powers of the federal government that go beyond those enumerated in the Constitution.

Reserved Powers

Powers not specifically granted to the national government or denied to the states. Are held to the states by the 10th Amendment.

Cooperative Federalism

Situations in which the national and state governments share powers and policy assignments. Think of the interstate highway system.

Categorical Grant

Funds provided for a specific and clearly defined purpose. Think of free school lunch programs or airport construction

Block Grant

Funds granted to the states for a broadly defined purpose, such as community redevelopment or welfare reform.

Federal Mandates

Rules telling states what they must do to comply with federal guidelines. If unfunded they put a financial burden on state and local governments.

Devolution

A movement to transfer the responsibilities of governing from the federal government to state and local governments.

Political Culture

A set of widely shared political beliefs and values.within a society

Political Socialization

The process by which political values are formed and passed from one generation to the next. Most important agent is the family.

Public Opinion

The distribution of the public's attitudes about institutions, leaders, political issues and events.

Political Ideology

A cohesive set of beliefs about politics, public policy and the role of the government.

Political Efficacy

The belief that one's political participation makes a difference

Split-Ticket Voting

Voting for candidates of different parties for different offices in the same election.

Political Party

A group of citizens who seek to control government through the winning of elections.

Plurality Election

The winning candidate is the person who receives more votes than anyone else, but less than half the total.

Single-Member District

An electoral district from which one person is chosen by the voters for each elected office and leads to legislatures dominated by two political parties.

Party Era

An historical period dominated by one political party.

Critical Election

An election when significant groups of voters change their traditional patterns of party loyalty. Critical elections lead to party realignment.

Party Realignment

The majority party is displaced by the minority party, thus ushering in a new party era.

Divided Government

A government in which one party controls the presidency while another party controls Congress. The pattern of government most prevalent since the 1968 election

Interest Group

A group of like-minded people whose members share views on specific interests and attempt to influence public policy to their benefit, but do not elect people to office.

Political Action Committee

A committee formed by business, labor, or other interest groups to raise money and make hard money contributions to the campaigns of political candidates whom they support.

Free Rider

People who benefit from an interest group without making any contributions

Elite Theory

The theory that a small number of very wealthy individuals, powerful corporate interest groups, and large financial institutions dominate key policy areas.

Pluralist Theory

The theory that many interest groups compete for power in a large number of policy areas. These groups are willing to compromise. The most positive outlook regarding how interest groups act in our political system

Hyper-Pluralist Theory

The theory that government policy is weakened and often contradictory because there are so many competing interest groups. Unlike pluralism, these groups are unwilling to compromise. Groups are strong and the government is weak.

Mass Media

Means of communication such as newspapers, radio, television, and the internet that can reach large, widely dispersed audiences.

Linkage Institutions

Institutions that connect citizens to the government (policymaking institutions). Examples are mass media, interest groups, campaigns and elections, and political parties.

Horse-Race Journalism

The tendency of the media to cover campaigns by emphasizing how candidates stand in the polls instead of where they stand on the issues.

Congressional Redistricting

The redrawing of congressional district lines within states. This is done every 10 years, after the census and reapportionment has happened.

Gerrymandering

The legislative process by which the majority party in each state legislature redraws congressional districts to ensure the maximum number of seats for its party's candidates.

Incumbent

The current officeholder - e.g., Joe Biden is the incumbent president. Also refers to an officeholder who is seeking reelection. Usually this is the most important factor in determining the outcome of the election in that incumbents overwhelmingly win reelection to Congress if seeking reelection

Franking Privilege

The right of members of Congress to use the US Postal Service free of charge for congressional business.

Standing Committees

Permanent subject-matter congressional committees that handle legislation and oversee the bureaucracy

Conference Committees

Temporary Committees that are formed to resolve differences between the House and Senate versions of a bill.

House Rules Committee

House Standing Committee which sets the guidelines for floor debate in the House. Gives each bill a rule, places it on the calendar, limits debate time and determines its amendments.

House Ways and Means Committee

House Standing Committee that handles all tax bills.

Filibuster

A way of delaying or preventing action on a bill in the Senate by using long speeches and unlimited debate to "talk a bill to death." Often used by the minority party to stall legislation

Cloture

A senate motion to end a filibuster requiring 60 votes

Logrolling

Tactic of mutual aid and vote trading among legislators. "You support my legislation, I will support yours".

Oversight

Congressional review of the activities of an executive agency, department, or office.

Delegate Model of Representation

A model of representation where members of Congress cast their votes on legislation based on the wishes of their constituents.

Trustee Model of Representation

A model of representation where members of Congress cast their votes based on what they believe is in the best interests of their constituents

Closed Primary

A primary in which voters are required to identify a party preference before the election and may only vote in that party's primary.

Open Primary

A primary in which voters can identify on election day which party's primary they wish to participate in.

Frontloading

The recent pattern of states holding primaries early in the presidential primary season in order to maximize their mass media attention and political influence.

Hard Money

Money donated by individuals or Political Action Committees (PACs) directly to candidates. Hard money is limited and must be disclosed to the Federal Election Commission

Soft Money

Unlimited amounts of money contributed to political parties for party-building activities as a means of circumventing limits on hard money. Soft Money was banned by the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (McCain-Feinggold).

Dark Money

Unlimited amounts of money donated to 501(C) groups for independent expenditures which, in general, does not need to be disclosed to the Federal Election Commission

527 Group

Groups designated under Section 527 of the IRS tax code that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money, but cannot coordinate their activities with any candidate or campaign. They must disclose their donors and are not allowed to expressly advocate for the election of a candidate

SuperPacs

Also known as Independent Expenditure Only PACs. Can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money on independent expenditures; must disclose their donors; and CAN expressly advocate for the election of a candidate. Large increases in SuperPacs as a result of the decision in Citizens United v FEC.

Veto

The president's Constitutional power to reject a bill passed by Congress. May be overridden by 2/3rds vote in both houses of Congress.

Line-Item Veto

The power to veto specific dollar amounts or line items from major congressional spending bills. This power was struck down as an unconstitutional expansion of the President's power.

Executive Agreement

An agreement between the president and the head(s) of a foreign government. Unlike treaties, they do not require senate approval. They only remain in effect as long as the parties to the agreement want it to remain valid.

Executive Privilege

The President's prerogative to keep his conversations with his advisors privileged and to not have to disclose these conversations.. In US vs. Nixon it was ruled that this power is not unlimited and cannot be used to block a criminal investigation

Lame-Duck Period

The period of time in which the President's term is about to come to an end and they have less influence.

Bureaucracy

a large and complex system of administration consisting of both appointed officials and civil servants. It features a hierarchical authority structure, job specialization, and established rules and procedures. It implements, administers, regulates policies, issues fines, and testifies before Congress.

Executive Order

A directive, order or regulation issued by the President to an executive branch agency that has the Constitutional force of law, but does not require congressional approval. One way for presidents to attempt to control the bureaucracy

Iron Triangle

A long-lasting mutually beneficial relationship among a bureaucratic agency, an interest group, and a congressional committee where each member provides key services, information, or policy for the others.

Issue Network

A temporary network that includes bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, members of congress, white house staffers, academics and other policy experts, and media pundits, who debate an issue.on the policy agenda.

Policy Agenda

A set of issues and problems that policy makers consider important enough to act upon. It is not static and is constantly changing. Linkage institutions help to communicate these issues and problems to the policymakers

Appellate Jurisdiction

The authority of a court to hear an appeal from a lower court. These courts are NOT deciding guilt or innocence, but rather the constitutionality of a law or errors in how the case was conducted. Both Circuit Courts and the Supreme Court have it

Original Jurisdiction

A court in which the case is first heard has original jurisdiction. District Courts and the Supreme Court (in limited cases spelled out by the Constitution) have it

Solicitor General

responsible for handling all appeals on behalf of the US government to the Supreme Court.

Senatorial Courtesy

An unwritten tradition whereby the Senate will not confirm nominations for lower court positions that are opposed by a senator of the president's own party from the state in which the nominee is to serve.

Writ of Certiorari

An order by the Supreme Court directing a lower court to send up the record in a given case for its review

Rule of Four

The Supreme Court will hear a case if four justices agree to do so.

Amicus Curiae Brief

A "friend of the court" written brief filed by an interest group or interested party who is not party to the case, but has an interest in the outcome of the Supreme Court decision.

Stare Decisis

A Latin phrase meaning "let the decision stand." This ensures most decisions are based on precedents established in earlier cases

Judicial Restraint

Judicial philosophy that holds that the Supreme Court should use precedent and the Framers' original intent to decide cases.

Judicial Activism

Judicial philosophy that holds that the Supreme Court must correct injustices when other branches of government or the states refuse to do so.

Fiscal Policy

Is set by Congress and involves policies regarding taxes and spending. It involves determining how much the government will tax, how the burden of these taxes will be distributed, the federal budget, and whether the government will run a deficit or a surplus.

Monetary Policy

The Federal Reserve Board controls the economy by regulating the money supply, controlling inflation, and adjusting interest rates.

Entitlement Programs

Government sponsored programs that provide mandated benefits to those who meet eligibility requirements. Includes Social Security, Medicare, and interest on the national debt

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

Part of the Executive Office of the President and responsible for helping prepare the budget that is submitted to Congress.

Civil Liberties

Our constitutional and legal protections against the government and are found in the Bill of Rights

Civil Rights

Our constitutional and legal protections against discrimination based on race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, gender, age and disability. Applied through the "equal protection clause" of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Selective Incorporation (Incorporation Doctrine)

The process whereby the Supreme Court on a case-by-case basis applies the Bill of Rights to state and local governments through the "due process" clause of the Fourteenth Amendment

Establishment Clause

A provision of the First Amendment that prohibits Congress from establishing an official government-sponsored religion or from advancing or favoring one religion over another

Free Exercise Clause

A provision of the First Amendment that guarantees each person the right to believe what he or she wants; however, the government can limit how you practice your religion if they have a "compelling interest" in doing so and do so in the "least restrictive manner".

Clear and Present Danger Standard

Judicial interpretation of the First Amendment that speech that presents a "clear and present danger" is not protected by the First Amendment. Established in Schenck v US

Imminent Lawless Action Standard

judicial interpretation of the First Amendment that speech that leads to "imminent lawless action" is not protected by the First Amendment. Established in Brandenburg v Ohio

Writ of Habeas Corpus

A court order directing that a prisoner be brought before a court and that the court officers show cause why the prisoner should not be released.

Ex Post Facto law

A law applied to an act committed before the law was enacted. Prohibited by the Constitution.

Exclusionary Rule

An interpretation of the Fourth Amendment that prohibits evidence obtained by illegal searches or seizures from being admitted in court.

Miranda Warnings

Warnings that police must read to suspects prior to questioning that advises them of their constitutional rights.

Strict Scrutiny

Courts review classification by race, ethnic background, national origin, or religion under this. This means the court is inherently suspect and the classification must be justified by a "compelling state interest."

Intermediate Scrutiny

Courts review classification by gender, and more and more, sexual orientation, under this. The classification must serve an important government interest and must be substantially related to that interest.

Low Level or Rational Basis Scrutiny

All other classifications, such as wealth, age, disability are reviewed under this. The classification must serve a legitimate government interest and must be rationally related to that interest

Affirmative Action

A policy that allows for preferential treatment for previously discriminated against groups in the areas of employment and university admissions. Policies may use race as one of several factors, but not the sole deciding factor. Strict racial quotas are unconstitutional. Promoting diversity has been upheld as a "compelling interest".

Government

The institutions through which public policy decisions are made for a society

Politics

"Who gets what, when, and how." The process of determining the leaders we select and the policies they pursue

Collective Goods

Goods and services, such as clean air and clean water, that cannot be denied to anyone

Political Issue

An issue that arises when disagree about a problem and how to resolve it