AP Psychology Unit 2

Orta 25-26 Grissom

Perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory info, turning it into meaningful objects/events- allows us to understand/interact with the world

Bottom-up processing

way our brain makes sense of info by starting with details, then building up to complete perception

top-down processing

interpreting sensory info based on larger context, prior knowledge, and expectations

selective attention

the process of focusing on a specific aspect of info while ignoring others

divided attention

occurs when mental focus is on multiple tasks or ideas at once, decreases amount of attention being placed on any one task

inattentional blindness

an individual fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their visual field when their attention is focused on something else

cocktail party effect

ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment while tuning out other stimuli

change blindness

failure to notice large changes in one’s environment when the change occurs simultaneously with a visual disruption

perceptual adaptation

brain’s remarkable ability to adjust how we perceive our surroundings by filtering out unnecessary or repetitive info

schema

mental framework, helps us to organize and interpret the world around us, influence perception by shaping expectations and guiding attention

perceptual set

a tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of available sensory data and ignore others, predisposes what we see and is influenced by expectations

Gestalt psychology

the whole is greater than the sum of its parts- we perceive a whole object rather than just a collection of parts

figure-ground pattern

refer to our ability to distinguish an object from its surroundings

grouping

brains have a tendency to organize stimuli into groups to process the complexity of the world

depth perception

ability to perceive the world in 3D and judge the distance of objects, achieved when the brain processes different pictures from each eye

binocular depth cues

visual info that requires both eyes to perceive depth/distance

retinal disparity

when each eye sees a slightly different picture because of eye position

convergence

when our eyes move inward towards each other to focus on a close object- helps us understand how near something is (depth)

monocular cues

visual indicators of distance and space using just one eye

linear perspective

depth cue where parallel lines converge as they recede into the distance, allows depth perception

interposition

when one object overlaps another, leads us to perceive the overlapping object as closer- tells us where objects are arranged

relative size

visual cue- objects closer look larger, further ones look smaller, helps with distance perception

relative height

we perceive objects higher in our visual field as being further away and close ones look lower

relative clarity

depth cue where clearer objects are closer, hazy ones are far away

texture gradient

way we perceive texture, looks denser/finer as it gets further away

apparent motion

perception of motion when there isn’t any actual movement

perceptual constancies

our brain’s ability to see objects as unchanging, even when the image on our retina changes- allows object recognition

shape constancy

our ability to perceive an object as having the same shape, even when the position changes

size constancy

our perception that an object remains the same size, even when distance changes

color constancy

ability to perceive colors of objects as stable under varying lighting

intelligence

ability to learn from experience, solve problems, use knowledge, and adapt to new situations

intelligence quotient

numerical measure of cognitive ability based on age group/standardized testing

mental age

level of performance associated with a certain chronological age

general intelligence

overarching mental ability that influences performance on various cognitive tasks

fluid intelligence

ability to think/reason flexibly, diminishes with age

crystallized intelligence

accumulation of knowledge, facts, skills, etc acquired through life, increases with age

multiple intelligences

theory suggests individuals possess different types of intelligence beyond traditional measures

emotional intelligence

ability to perceive, control, evaluate, and identify emotions of both your own and others

growth mindset

abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and effort

fixed mindset

intelligence is predetermined and cannot be significantly changed

wechsler intelligence scales

intelligence test designed in 1955 for adults and adolescents, intelligence is made up of a number of different mental abilities, not one general intelligence factor

flynn effect

trend of average IQ scores increasing over generations, suggesting a rise in general intelligence due to environmental/cultural factors, but is now dropping

psychometricians

focus on methods for acquiring and analyzing psychological data

standardization

process of establishing consistent testing procedures/norms for administering and scoring psych assessments

achievement tests

assess a person’s knowledge or skill in a certain area- academic or job-related

aptitude tests

assess a person’s potential for learning/mastering certain skills in the future- predict future performance, making them the single best predictor for job performance

validity

extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to

construct validity

checks if a test really measures what it’s supposed to

predictive validity

how well a test can forecast future outcomes/behaviors

reliability

consistency in test results over time

test-retest reliability

assesses consistency by administering the same test to the same group twice

split-half reliability

divides a test into two values and compares scores between them, measures internal consistency by checking for similar results

stereotype threat

phenomenon where individuals underperform in situations where they feel at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group

stereotype lift

individuals perform higher due to positive stereotype

memory

the persistence of learning over time, info that has been stored and can be stored

information processing model

model of memory compares our mind to a computer in a series of 3 stages: encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding

1st stage of IPM, perceived info is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored

storage

process of retaining info in the brain over time- can be long- or short-term

retrieval

process of accessing and bringing stored info back into conscious awareness

recall

being able to access the info w/out being cued

recognition

identifying info after experiencing it again

relearning

learning more quickly when learning info for a second or later time

multi-store model

describes memory as a 3-part system that includes sensory, short-term, and long-term memory

sensory memory

initial stage where sensory info is stored for a very brief period of time, acts as a buffer for stimuli recieved through senses

iconic memory

type of sensory memory- visual images, lasts about ¼ of a second

echoic memory

type of sensory memory- auditory info, about 3-4 seconds

haptic memory

type of sensory memory- tactile info, lasts about 2 second

short term memory

temporarily holds small amount of info (15-30 sec), has a limited capacity and if not reviewed, goes away

long-term memory

stage of memory where info is stored indefinitely- long term retention, virtually unlimited capacity, uses hippocampus

working memory

form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating info, combines short and long term memory

central executive

control center of working memory- manages attention, memory, integrates info, decisions, planning, allows adapting and shifting

phonological loop

working memory responsible for processing and sharing verbal info

visuospatial sketchpad

working memory, allows temporary storage/manipulation of visual and spatial info

long-term potentiation

long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons, results from simultaneous activation

effortful processing

type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed info into long-term memory

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of info about space/time frequency, well-learned tasks

levels of processing model

depth that info is thought about affects how well it is remembered, deeper processing enhances likelihood of later recall

shallow encoding

basic level of processing-focuses on surface characteristics of info without engaging with meaning, leads to fragile memories

structural encoding

type of SP where you only focus on physical structure of info

phonemic ecoding

SP, only focuses on auditory aspects of info

deep encoding

thoroughly processing info by focusing on meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge, analyzes significance and creates long-lasting memories by creating a link

chunking

memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units, helping to store info by breaking it into pieces

categories

organizing info by grouping related items into categories, helps structure info logically, making it easier to access through associated links

hierarchies

organizing info in a system of ranked categories or levels- structured format allows efficient recall

mnemonics

techniques used to improve memory- associate info with cues like patterns/images or rhymes

method of loci

mnemonic technique- associate items with physical locations

explicit/declarative memories

type of LTM, involves conscious recall of facts +experiences/specific knowledge

implicit/unconscious memory

type of LTM, does not require conscious thought, everyday automatic actions

semantic memory

type of explicit memory, general facts/knowledge independent of personal experience and context

episodic memory

type of explicit memory, recollection of personal experiences and specific events from 1st person perspective

autobiographical memory

recollection of experiences from your life, makes a narrative

procedural memory

type of implicit memory, recall of how to do things automatically

prospective memory

remembering to perform a planned action/recall one later, triggered by cues and specific times or places

massed practice (cramming)

content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks- quick results but does not save to LTM!

spacing effect

more effective, study sessions are spaced out over time, not crammed into one session

maintenance rehearsal

prolongs STM, repetitively go over one piece of info to store longer in STM

elaborative rehearsal

involves deep processing of info by adding meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge

the forgetting curve

graphical representation of the rate at which memory fades over time, fastest soon after learning because the brain deems some info non-essential

encoding failure

occurs when info does not enter LTM because of inadequate processing at the time of encoding