Chapters 1-6 Physiology Exam 1 UCF with 100% correct answers already graded A+ 2025-2026

3 parts of a cell

plasma membrane (phospholipid/2 sides head and tail) , cytoplasm, nucleus

*Head is hydrophilic

*Tail is Hydrophobic

Phospholipids

a lipid containing a phosphate group in its molecule. Protects the cell from external trauma.

Important for transporting of molecules.

Active Transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference.

Requires ATP.

*Moves from higher concentration to lower concentration area.

sodium-potassium pump

A transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that actively transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell.

Uses ATP for hydrolysis.

integral proteins

penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer. The most abundant and acts as receptor for endocrine hormones.

Glycolayx

Cell to cell binding.

A chain of carbohydrates projected out from the external surface of glycoproteins and glycolipids.

helps bind mucin.

cell membrane

the semipermeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell. Important for bulk transport.

passive transport

the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell. NO ATP.

Exocytosis

Membrane-lined cytoplasmic vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and released their contents to the outside of the cell.

Ex. Mucus and protein secretions from the glands in the body.

Endocytosis

process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane. Brings large molecules into cell, through infolding of membrane that encloses them to form cytoplasmic vesicles. (Lysosomes break down large molecules)

3 types of endocytosis

phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells

Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.

receptor-mediated endocytosis

The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances.

Abnormal LDH receptor

leads to failure of cholesterol release into target cell which leads to deficiency of cholesterol.

Cytoplasm

located between nucleus and cell membrane

contains ribosomes which is site for protein production.

Golgi apparatus

A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell.

Involves stacks of cistae bound by membrane.

sorts products of rER and places them in membrane bound vesicles and sends them to their proper destination.

Translation

Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced

Smooth ER

That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes. Production of lipid and lipid metabolism.

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production. Inner membrane folded into projections called cristae.

Tay-Sachs disease

A human genetic disease caused by a recessive allele that leads to the accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth.

Lysosomes

cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell

Gaucher's Disease

glucocerebrosidase deficiency results in macrophages with fibrillary appearance. Causes harmful substances to build up in the liver, spleen, bones and marrow. These prevent cells and organs from walking properly.

Type 1 - bone disease, anemia, enlarged spleen and trombocytopenia.

type 2 - infancy w/severe neurologic involvement can lead to early death.

type 3- can cause liver, spleen, brain problems. Patients can live through adulthood.

symptoms- bone pain & fractures, enlarged spleen and liver, lung disease and seizures.

Peroxisomes

Contain oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and other harmful chemicals.

Contains oxidase and catalase enzymes.

Oxidase- uses oxygen to neutralize reactive substances called free radicals by converting them to hydrogen peroxide (liver and kidney)

Cytoskeleton

A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement.

Microtubules

microfilaments

intermediate filaments

Mitosis

cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes.

Interphase-cell growth and carries usual activities (G1 growth)

Cells are active and grow centrioles which start to replicate.

Cell division phase (mitotic phase)

-DNA replicates itself for two future daughter cells.

Mitosis stages

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Prophase - Asters are formed, microtubule arrays.

Metaphase - chromosomes cluster at middle of cell to form a plate

Anaphase - V-Shaped chromatids are pulled apart by the kinetochore spindles to become the chromosomes of the daughter cells.

Telophase- Reverse prophase, chromosomes at opposite sides of cell uncoil and resume extension of the chromatin.

Meiosis

Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms. Occurring only in production of gametes.

involuntary muscle

muscle that responds automatically to brain signals but cannot be consciously controlled

Name the involuntary muscles

cardiac and smooth

epithelial cells

skin cells that cover the outside of the body and line the internal surfaces of organs

pseudo stratified columnar epithelium

Single layer of cells of differing heights, nuclei at different levels. Involves cilia.

squamous epithelium

a layer of flattened platelike cells that cover internal and external body surfaces.

Respiratory system and blood vessels wall which inhibits friction, important for gas exchange.

All in contact w basement membrane.

cuboidal epithelium

Type of epithelial tissue with cube-shaped cells.

Function to secrete.

Male and female reproductive organs and kidney

Absorption of liquids like mucus.

columnar epithelium

Single layer column shaped cells - lining stomach, small intestine - secrete and absorbs.

nuclei is elongated and located near base of cells.

Goblet cells: (unicellular glands) found between columnar epithelial cells of the duodenum.

Insulin

A protein hormone synthesized in the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into tissues. Decreases blood sugar and is only active when blood sugar is high.

Glucagon

A protein hormone secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin. Active when blood glucose is low (under 50mg/dc), increases blood sugar.

Somatostatin

hormone that inhibits release of growth hormone and insulin. Paracrine hormones (insulin and glucagon) Suppresses and decreases insulin and glucagon secretions

exocrine glands

secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body. Connected to a duct, duct opens into a cavity.

endocrine glands

glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream. Ductless glands, endocrine hormone is released into blood stream.

Marfan Syndrome

autosomal dominant; pleiotropic; tall, weak heart

associated w cardiomegaly

cardiomegaly

enlargement of the heart

Ehlers-Danlos syndrome

A group of inherited disorders that affect your connective tissues — primarily your skin, joints and blood vessel walls. People who have this syndrome usually have overly flexible joints and stretchy, fragile skin. This can become a problem if you have a wound that requires stitches, because the skin often isn't strong enough to hold them.

body fluids

tears, saliva, sputum (mucous coughed up), urine, feces, semen, vaginal secretions, and pus or other wound drainage. Approx 67% of total weight is water within cells in intracellular compartment. About 20% of extracellular fluid is contained within a matrix of glycoproteins and proteoglycans.

hyperglycemia

excess of sugar in the blood, Deficiency of Insulin can lead to this. Insulin facilitates glucose entrance.

Hypoglycemia

abnormally low level of sugar in the blood

carrier mediated transport

The type of transport in which proteins bind to ions or substrates and carry them across the plasma membrane.

secondary active transport

Form of active transport which does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport.

Osmolarity

the concentration of a solution expressed as the total number of solute particles per liter.

Osmosis

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. From low concentration to high.

cystic fibrosis

A genetic disorder that occurs in people with two copies of a certain recessive allele; characterized by an excessive secretion of mucus and consequent vulnerability to infection; fatal if untreated. Abnormal NaCl levels and genetic defect involving CFTR (Regulator)

hyperosmotic

A term describing organisms with body fluids with a lower concentration of water and higher solute concentration than the external environment.

hypoosmotic

A term describing organisms with body fluids with a higher concentration of water and lower solute concentration than the external environment.

reflection coefficient

(capillaries) quantitates the amount of protein that is reflected away from the capillary membrane.

1 = everything reflected away, nothing passes through pores.

0 = nothing reflecting. Everything gets through.

edema

Abnormal accumulation of fluid in interstitial spaces of tissues. Leads to closure of lymphatic system and can occur when liver is damaged in Cirrhosis.

Cannot produce albumin which is major protein in plasma.

oral rehydration therapy

a treatment involving the administration of a salt and sugar solution to a child who is dehydrated from diarrhea

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

equilibrium potential

the membrane potential at which chemical and electrical forces are balanced for a single ion.

Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)

Electrical potential energy produced by separation of oppositely charged particles across plasma membrane in all cells. -70mV

absolute refractory period

The minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.

relative refractory period

A period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarized state and will fire again only if the incoming message is much stronger than usual

Myelination

the process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron

diffusion potential

the potential difference generated across a membrane because of a concentration difference of an ion

neuromuscular junction

point of contact between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle cell

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation. Increases blood pressure, heart rate, sweating, relaxes smooth muscle of respiratory system.

Epinephrine

Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress. Also known as adrenaline. Increases blood pressure, sugar and synthesized by norepinephrine

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system. secreted by brain stem, the black sub-stems. deficiency can lead to parkinsons disease.

Released from hypothalamus and inhibits prolactin secretion. when prolactin is high in non-pregnant female it leads to infertility which is why bromocriptine (synthetic dopamine) is provided, which decreases prolactin levels.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood. Present in high concentrations in brain stem and is formed by tryptophan

Deficiency can lead to bipolarity and depression.

Histamine

Chemical stored in mast cells that triggers dilation and increased permeability of capillaries.

Chemical responsible for allergy symptoms.

Present in neurons of hypothalamus.

Increases gastric acid secretion causing gastritis.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. Controls Na+ and K+ channels

GABA and glycine

Most common inhibitory neurotransmitters

Brain stabilizers

stimulate Cl- channels.

Inhibitor for brain stem and spinal chord.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction. For autonomic nervous system, gastric acid secretion, over-secretion of ACH leads to gastritis

Marasmus

A disease of severe protein-calorie malnutrition during early infancy, in which growth stops, body tissues waste away, and the infant eventually dies.

Type 1 diabetes

Diabetes of a form that usually develops during childhood or adolescence and is characterized by a severe deficiency of insulin, leading to high blood glucose levels. The antibody destroys beta cells in pancreas which secretes insulin which leads to deficiency. Which leads to hyperglycemia and glucose cannot enter cell for production of ATP. Sugar cannot enter body and provide for cells.

Prostoglandins

decrease acidity, increase ability of cell to produce mucus and bicarb, and increase blood flow, THEREFORE NSAIDS will increase acidity by destroying COX which produces PGE's. Helps erection and those w erectile dysfunction. These levels increase during delivery.