The Human Brain, Cognitive Development, and Learning Theories – Key Vocabulary

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards summarizing key neuroscience concepts, developmental stages, and learning theories from the lecture notes.

Cognition

The mental processes of taking in, processing, storing, and using information for learning, thinking, and problem-solving.

Neurons

Specialized nerve cells that work together as a complex communication network in the brain and nervous system.

Neurodevelopment

The growth and change of the brain over time, enabling new learning, improved thinking, and adaptation to challenges.

Neuroscience

The scientific study of the brain and nervous system.

Encoding

The initial processing of sensory input into a form the brain can store and use.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Feedback

Information about performance that guides future actions and refines learning strategies.

Metacognition

Awareness and regulation of one’s own thinking and learning processes.

Retrieval

Accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness when needed.

Brain Stem

Brain region connecting to the spinal cord; regulates heartbeat, breathing, blood flow, and automatic actions like sneezing and swallowing.

Limbic System

Deep-brain structures acting as an emotional control center for feelings such as happiness, fear, and sadness.

Cerebellum

The "little brain" at the back of the head that controls voluntary muscle movement, posture, and balance.

Cerebrum

The large front brain region responsible for movement, temperature regulation, higher-order thinking, and sensory processing.

Prefrontal Cortex

Frontal-lobe area crucial for decision-making, impulse control, and emotional regulation.

Retrieval Practice

Actively recalling information to strengthen long-term memory.

Spacing

Distributing study sessions over time for more durable learning.

Interleaving

Mixing different topics or skills within one study session to deepen understanding and transfer.

Feedback-Driven Metacognition

Using feedback to monitor and adjust one’s learning strategies for greater self-awareness.

Desirable Difficulty

Introducing manageable challenges during learning to build resilience and improve retention.

Learning Science

Interdisciplinary study of how people learn, integrating psychology, neuroscience, education, and computer science.

Research-Based Practices

Instructional methods supported by solid empirical research showing positive effects on learning.

Evidence-Based Practices

Strategies informed by findings from educational and learning-science studies.

Executive Function

Mental skills that enable planning, focusing attention, and remembering instructions.

Cramming

Intensive, last-minute studying before an exam.

Multitasking

Attempting to perform multiple tasks at the same time.

Hippocampus

Limbic system structure involved in memory formation, learning, and emotional processing.

Distributed Practice

Learning that is spread out over time rather than condensed into one session.

Neurodiversity

Recognition and celebration of natural variations in neural functioning and cognitive styles.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to reorganize and adapt in response to experiences.

Cognitive Style

An individual’s habitual way of thinking, perceiving, remembering, and problem-solving.

Cognitive Rigidity

The tendency for cognitive abilities to become fixed and less flexible with age.

Tabula Rasa

The concept that the human mind is essentially blank at birth.

Growth Mindset

Belief that abilities can improve through effort and resilience.

Fixed Mindset

Belief that abilities are innate and unchangeable.

Differentiated Instruction

Tailoring teaching methods to meet individual students’ needs, interests, and readiness levels.

Multisensory Learning

Engaging multiple senses to deepen learning experiences.

Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)

Instruction that develops skills for managing emotions, relationships, and life challenges.

Information Processing Theory

Model describing how sensory input moves through working memory to long-term memory.

Embodied Mind Perspective

View that cognition is influenced by the interaction of body, mind, and environment.

Humanism

Educational approach that nurtures students’ well-being, self-esteem, and sense of belonging.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget’s stage (0–2 yrs) where infants learn through senses and actions, developing object permanence.

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight or sound.

Trust Versus Mistrust Stage

Erikson’s stage where infants develop trust if caregivers reliably meet basic needs.

Autonomy Versus Shame/Doubt Stage

Erikson’s stage where toddlers strive for independence; inconsistent support can cause shame or doubt.

Sensory Exploration

Activities engaging the senses to help children learn about their environment.

Fine Motor Skills

Small-muscle movements coordinated with brain and nervous system, e.g., using hands and eyes together.

Initiative Versus Guilt Stage

Erikson’s stage (ages 3–6) where children assert themselves in play and social interactions.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget’s stage (2–7 yrs) where children use symbols and imitation but think egocentrically.

Egocentric

Difficulty seeing perspectives other than one’s own.

Scaffolding

Breaking complex tasks into manageable steps with guidance from a teacher or mentor.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains constant despite changes in shape or appearance.

Industry Versus Inferiority Stage

Erikson’s stage (5–12 yrs) focusing on developing competence through accomplishments.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget’s stage (7–11 yrs) characterized by logical, organized, and systematic thinking.

Reversibility

Ability to mentally undo actions, recognizing processes can be reversed.

Classification

Grouping objects or ideas based on shared attributes.

Puberty

Developmental period (≈12–17 yrs) involving growth spurts and secondary sexual characteristics.

Identity vs Role Confusion Stage

Erikson’s stage (12–17 yrs) where adolescents explore and form personal identity.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget’s stage (12–17 yrs) marked by abstract, complex, and systematic thinking.

Learning Theories

Conceptual frameworks explaining how knowledge and skills are acquired and behaviors change.

Behaviorism

Learning theory emphasizing observable behaviors shaped by external stimuli.

Classical Conditioning

Learning via associations between stimuli leading to reflexive responses.

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which behaviors are strengthened or weakened by consequences.

Reinforcement

Consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Punishment

Consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Direct Instruction

Teacher-led, structured method aligned with behaviorist principles.

Cognitivism

Learning theory focusing on mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.

Mental Schemas

Cognitive frameworks that organize and interpret information.

Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy

Hierarchy of cognitive objectives: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, creating.

Elaboration

The process of adding detail or making connections to deepen learning.

Constructivism

Theory emphasizing active, student-centered construction of knowledge through experience and interaction.

Self-Directed Learning

Learner sets goals, finds resources, and solves problems independently.

Discovery Learning

Learning through exploration and problem-solving to uncover new ideas.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Gap between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guidance.

More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)

Person with greater expertise who supports learning within the ZPD.

Social Constructivism

View that learning is shaped by social interaction and cultural context.

Acquisition

Initial learning of new information through focused attention and engagement.

Consolidation

Strengthening new information by connecting it to prior knowledge and practice.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Temporary mental storage holding limited information for seconds to a minute.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Durable storage of knowledge, skills, and experiences over extended periods.