Chapter 11 - Development

Schema

Structured cluster of concepts about how the world works

How are schemas used with development?

Mental framework that is created as children interact with their physical and social environment

Assimilation

incorporation of new learning into an existing schema without the need to revise schema

Accommodation

incorporation of new learning into an existing schema that requires the revision of the schema

What are Piaget's four main stages of cognitive development?

Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete operational, Formal operational

Sensorimotor

Interaction with environment, focus on here and now

Preoperational

no internal mental operations/manipulations

Egocentrism

cannot understand that others have different points of view

Concrete operational

Internal mental operations/manipulations, but concrete (not abstract). Hands on learning best

Formal operational

abstract concepts, problem solving that can go beyond trial and error

Milestone at sensorimotor

object permanence

Milestone at pre operational

conservation

Milestone at concrete operational

logical thinking

Milestone at formal operational

abstract thinking

Object permanence

understanding that items and people still exist even when you can't see or hear them.

What age does object permanence develop?

Birth - 2 years

What is conservation of mass or volume?

The ability to understand that changing the form or appearance of an object does not change its quantity.

What age does conservation of mass or volume develop?

Develops 6-12 yrs

Criticisms of Piaget's theory

Reduced focus on individual differences, Abrupt stages vs. Gradual and continuous, Mechanisms for moving to a new stage?

What is Theory of Mind (TOM)?

Extends Piaget's concept of egocentrism. Can a child understand another person's point of view?

When does TOM emerge?

3-4 yrs (before end of pre operational stage)

What is the false belief (Sally-Anne) test, and how does it test for Theory of Mind?

After seeing what was in the box, the child thinks that everybody knows what's in the box

Temperament

Individual differences in patterns of mood, activity and emotional responsiveness

What does Kagan's test predict about low-reactive and high-reactive infants?

Predictive of temperament later in childhood, especially shyness. High reactive are more likely to be shy

How does Kagan's test for reactivity work?

A baby is shown an unfamiliar stimuli, then see how the baby reacts.

Attachment

Connection between infant and parent. More focus on infant with mother

How is attachment tested?

Child under stress, child in an unfamiliar environment with mother than with a stranger (Ainsworth: Strange situation paradigm)

What are the four different attachment patterns identified by Ainsworth and other researchers?

Secure, avoidant, anxious-ambivalent, and disorganized

Secure

a little distress when mom leaves. Calms down once the caregiver comes back

Avoidant

Avoid interaction with mother. When mother leaves there wasn't distress. Similar interactions with stranger and mom

Anxious-Ambivalent

Mom came back, resist interacting with mom. Establish contact, then they want to be with mom

Disorganized

Patterns that don't fit the other three

Examples of disorganized attachment

Some children froze once mom left. Some parents had trauma in their own childhood

What did Harlow's tests on attachment in monkeys reveal about the importance of food vs. comfort?

Harlow demonstrated importance of comfort rather than food. Baby needs a solid base, mother, to explore the world.

Reactive Attachment Disorder

Can occur with children from orphanages. Institutionalization and neglect during critical period for attachment (birth-5 years)

What are the two dimensions of parenting style?

Behavioral regulation and Parental support

What are the four parenting style types?

Authoritarian, uninvolved, permissive, and authoritative

Authoritarian

high on behavioral regulation, low parental support. Punishment, Rigid, Parent wants to be in charge all the time, Not being nurturing

Uninvolved

low on parental support, low on behavioral regulation. Distant, Uninterested, Let kids do whatever they want, Won't interact with them a lot

Permissive

Low on behavioral regulation, high on parental support. No guidelines, Over-involved, Let kid do what they want. Support kid

Authoritative

(ideal) High on behavioral regulation, high on parental support. Standards, Flexible, Rules that kids have to follow, Be supportive of kid rather than punishment

What is the Marshmallow test

Kid at table and set marshmallow in front of them. They can eat it rn, (immediate gratification). If they can wait, they get 2 marshmallows

What does the marshmallow test for?

Correlates with adult behavior. Impulse control

What are areas of evidence that suggest a biological component to gender-role development?

Sex-typed toy preferences at 12-18 months. Girls with CAH will like boy toys more than healthy girls

What are social factors that influence gender-role development?

Influence of parents.

Social learning theory (Bem)

useful categorization system. Young child will learn how to categorize the world

Stages of Kohlberg's moral development

Preconventional, conventional, postconventional

Preconventional

Considers how it affects me (Obedience/punishment and self-interest)

Obedience/Punishment

Young child will avoid punishment (infancy)

Self-Interest

Best interest of self (Pre-school)

Conventional

Following fixed rules from authority figures (Conformity and interpersonal accord; Authority and social order)

Conformity and Interpersonal Accord

What would a good boy/girl do? Social norms, follow the rules (school-age)

Authority and Social Order

Sometimes you have to break the rules, there can be exceptions. Starting to make their own decision

Postconventional

More flexible on what is right or wrong (Social contract and Universal principles)

Social Contract

Individuals may disobey the rules. Focus on bigger issues and what's more important. Morally right and legally right are not always the same (teens)

Universal Principles

Morality is based on the situation (Adulthood)

What are some criticisms of Kohlberg's theory?

Emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other values (like caring). Original studies only used male participants. Some researchers argue that many people never reach postconventional stage

What types of brain development occur during adolescence?

Growth of white matter, myelination. Amygdala fully developed. Frontal cortex continues to develop into early 20s (Impulse control)

What might explain why adolescents are more likely than adults to engage in risky behavior?

Teens are more likely to believe that they are immune from consequences of risky behavior

What are Erikson's 8 stages of psychosocial development?

"Crisis" at each stage leads to positive vs. negative outcomes.

Infant-18 months

Trust vs. Mistrust (Learn to trust caregiver)

18 months- 3 years

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Kids are starting a sense of autonomy, able to take care of themselves with small tasks)

3-5 years

Initiative vs. Guilt (Can think about doing things by themselves)

5-13 years

Industry vs. Inferiority (Succeed at tasks)

13-21 years

Identity vs Role Confusion (Sexual orientation, discovering who you are at a person)

21-39 years old

Intimacy vs Isolation (Find romantic partners, develop a sense of intimacy, if not you'll feel isolated)

40-65 years

Generativity vs Stagnation (Contributing to society in a meaningful way, loving your job, or feeling unproductive)

65 and older

Ego integrity vs Despair (Looking through your life and feeling if your life was worth enough)

How does life satisfaction vary over different types of marital status (e.g., married, divorced, single)?

Regardless of marital status, generally everyone has around the same satisfaction with life

How does marital satisfaction vary according to the stage of the family life cycle?

Least satisfied when kids are school aged. (Because parents are so busy with extracurricular activities)

What are some cognitive changes in late adulthood?

Mild changes in speed of learning and problem solving. More changes in fluid intelligence (processing skills) than crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge)

Fluid intelligence

how to do things

Crystallized intelligence

facts and figures

Zygote

first 2 gestational weeks, the developing organism

Embryo

during gestational weeks 3-8

Fetus

After week 8

Common genetic disorders occur when

parents are older. Errors in development of egg and sperm. Final division of a woman's immature egg, doesn't occur just before ovulation. Older the woman the more years of harmful environmental influences

Down Syndrome

child receives a third full or partial copy of the 21st chromosome.

Symptoms

Intellectual disability, mild physical abnormalities, life span of 40-50 years

Teratogen

any agent that can produce harmful effects to the fetus

Fetal alcohol syndrome

pregnant women consume alcohol. Producing physical abnormalities also causes cognitive and behavioral problems.

Gray matter

areas populated by neural cell bodies and the thickness of cortical gray matter is correlated with measures of intelligence

Babinski

Stroking the baby's foot causes toes to spread out.

Blink

Eye closes in response to strong stimuli. Protects eyes.

Moro

If the baby's head falls backward, the arms first spread out and then "hug." A possible evolutionary remnant allowing primates to cling to an adult.

Palmar

Placing an object in the hand produces reflexive grasping. A possible evolutionary remnant allowing primates to cling to an adult's fur.

Rooting

Stroking a baby's cheek results in the baby turning toward the touch and opening the mouth.Helps the baby nurse.

Stepping

Placing the baby's feet on a flat surface initiates stepping. Possible precursor to walking.

Sucking

The baby sucks anything that touches the roof of the mouth. Helps the baby nurse.

What are important milestones during the newborn period?

Reflexive movement. Large amounts of sleep. Improving sensory capacities. Preference for faces

Infancy Nervous system milestones

Synapses that aren't useful are deleted (synaptic pruning). Myelination is the growth in white matter

Infancy Motor development

Controlling muscles of the neck and shoulders. Improve coordination and movement

How does Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development differ from Piaget's?

Role of culture and cultural differences in the development of the child. Vygotsky, culture teaches children not only what to think but how to think. Piaget suggests that children learn by exploring the world

Adolescence Physical changes

Mature sexually and reach adult weight and height

Adolescence cognitive development

Executive functions like working memory and reaction time reach adult levels, thinking more logically or analytically

Adolescence social/emotional development

Identity formation: develop a sense of identity if not they will cause confusion

Midlife physical changes

For females is the end of their ability to reproduce (menopause), Males have gradual changes in their reproductive status

Midlife Social Changes

Changes in family and work domains

Late adulthood physical changes

Physical status are gradual and mild

Late adulthood Brain Changes

Weight of brain decreases, different parts of brain lose weight more than others like hippocampus