psych 111 - umich hoeffner - EXAM 2

properties of language

arbitrarily symbolic, generative, structured at multiple levels

arbitrarily symbolic

No connection between symbol and concept; words do not have to look or sound like what they describe

generative

using rules of language (our internalized language) we can create and unlimited number of new utterances; limited number of words but they can be combined in unlimited ways

structured at multiple levels

sentence --> phrase --> word --> morpheme --> phoneme

phonemes

in a language, the smallest distinct sound unit; different languages use different sets of _______

articulation

the process of producing and using the speech sounds required for intelligible and meaningful speech. Different phonemes are produced by our vocal apparatus depending on the position of our tongues, lips, jaw, vocal cords, etc.

vowels

airflow is largely UNOBSTRUCTED -- lip and tongue positions matter a lot

constonants

airflow is partially/fully obstructed -- stop consonants (temporary blockage of airflow and then a quick release, like ba/da/ta) and fricatives (restricted airflow, like s/z/v/f), etc

voicing

the utilization of vocal cord vibrations to generate speech noises (difference between si/zi)

stop consonants

ba/da/ta/ - temporary blockage of airflow and then a quick release

morphemes

smallest MEANINGFUL parts of words - words made up one or more _______s and changes in _______s lead to changes in the word meaning (cat and cats)

morphology

word structure

syntax

rules used to put words together for a sentence, governs how words are combined into large units (phrases/sentences)

Broca's aphasia

damage to _____ area (left frontal lobes) leads to difficulty with language production -- slow, halting speech, simple grammar: no function words (be, of, the), comprehension largely INTACT

planning and organization of speech

Wernicke's aphasia

damage to ____ area (left temporal lobe) leads to lost ability to comprehend spoken words, but language production remains FLUENT -- this fluent speech (not halting like Broca's) makes little sense, lost comprehension

stores sound representations of words

Conduction aphasia

damage to connection between Broca's and Wernicke's area -- less severe damage to language ability, but trouble monitoring speech and repeating back sentences

Global aphasia

widespread damage to left hemisphere across multiple language areas

linguistic determinism

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis -- language determines the way we think (strong interpretation), thoughts and behaviour are DETERMINED by language

linguistic relativity

thoughts and behavior are influenced by language -- variety of interesting studies, some for, some against -- language effects language, cognition, memory, but NOT as strong as linguistic determinism

studies of color naming

Berlin and Kay (1969) - 2 colour terms = black and white, then 3 terms = black, white, red, then additional color words in this order = yellow-blue, brown, then purple, pink

Heider (1972) - even without specific names for colors, could recognize different shades --> DISPROVED linguistic determinism

codability

how easily a concept can be described in a given language -- if you had word for concept X it is a lot easier to encode that concept... does codability affect perception/cognition/memory (sapir and whorf)

The problem of language acquisition

Learn phonemes, parsing into phonemes & words (no clear divisions between phonemes or words in speech), word meanings, syntax/grammar rules

Learn language without negative feedback about grammar/pronunciation; suggests linguistic universals

Language development: phonemes (can discriminate all phonemes from all languages during 1st year, gradually lose non-relevant discriminations)

linguistic universals

characteristic patterns across all languages of various cultures

learn language without negative feedback about grammar/pronunciation, suggests this

language development - phonemes

can discriminate all phonemes from all languages during 1st year, gradually lose non-relevant discriminations

motherease

adults help kids with high pitch, slow rate, exaggerated intonation, limited vocabulary

major stages of language development

holophrastic stage, telegraphic stage, learning syntax/rules

holophrastic stage

one-word stage

one word utterances, no syntax, need context (gestures) to disambiguate, under-generalization and overgeneralization for first ~75 words, do UNDERSTAND some phrases

telegraphic stage

two-word stage

correct use of word order: subject-action and action-object, can convey a lot of info succinctly (like a telegraph)

learning syntax/rules stage

start learning synactic/grammar rules

past tense = U-shaped curve for irregular past tense (initially use appropriate form, learn 'rule' and overgeneralize, then relearn correct past tense)

nonsense words = learn general rules that apply to new cases (plural of wug is wugS, rick is rickED), implies language learning is generative, not just imitation

overgeneralization

We have irregular verbs such as "thought" not "thinked" -- when children pick up on these rules they may tend to try to apply them to irregular verbs such as thought. This process is described by this concept.

syntactic overgeneralization

Learning the concept of making a term past tense and applying it incorrectly to words where is does not make sense

critical period effects

most people who learn language after age 10-12 never acquire native ability

Johnson and Newport Study (1990) -shows better ability when you start to learn a language younger and once ~16, the older you are is same level of bad

Animal Language Research

-Fewer ethical constraints than humans

-Full time subjects over whom we can exert complete control of environment

-Can do comparative analysis of other species abilities/limitations.

-Differentiate between skills that are uniquely human and those that are not

-Address Nativist vs. Empiricist debate in language

-Need to avoid "Clever Hans" and anthropomorphism problems

Koko the gorilla

Example of displacement; Koko is a gorilla that has been taught sign language, 1000 signs learned

invented her own compound signs (finger-bracelet for ring)

Kanzi the bonobo

refer to objects that they are not requesting, can describe past events, respond well to spoken requests

mother was in a language learning study at a lab in Georgia, taught to communicate using symbols on a computer (lexigrams), not trying to teach him, but he observed while he clung to his mother, he did much better than his mother = CRITICAL PERIOD??

well-defined problem

completely specified starting conditions, goal state, and methods for achieving the goal --> geometry proofs

ill-structured problems

some aspects are not completely specified (finding the perfect mate, choosing a career, writing a great novel, be happy in life, fix the economy, win a war)

problem solving methods

algorithms and heuristics

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

completely specified sequence of steps that is guaranteed to produce an answer (like a recipe)

heuristic

a short-cut, step-saving thinking strategy or principle which generates a solution quickly (but possibly in error), "rule of thumb"

trial and error heuristic

problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions and eliminating those that do not work

difference reduction/hill climbing heuristic

at any point, select the operator that moves you closer to the goal state -- you never choose an operator that moves you away from the goal

means-end analysis heuristic

A problem-solving heuristic in which the distance to the goal state is decreased systematically by breaking the problem down into subgoals and achieving these subgoals

identify the largest difference between current state and goal state, set a subgoal that reduces the difference, find and apply an operator to reduce the difference

working backward heuristic

A problem-solving heuristic in which one attempts to solve a problem by working from the goal state back to the start state

transform goal state so it is more similar to the initial state, useful if too many paths leading from initial state

importance of problem representation

right representation makes it easier, wrong makes it harder to solve -- algebra word problems easier as equations, if cannot imagine it, hard to answer

isomorphs - equivalent problems, different representation

analogous problems

retrieve a representation of a problem from memory that is similar to the problem you currently face, if you can already solve the old problem you may be able to solve the new problem as well

people tend to miss deep structural similarities between problems because they tend to focus on surface similarities and differences

mental set

tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may/may not be helpful (or could actually hurt) in solving a new problem

functional fixedness

see an object as having only a fixed, familiar function

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

judge whether A has some characteristic by relying on the SIMILARITY of A to other things with that characteristic, but IGNORE base rates (how common something actually is in general)

availability heuristic

tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event in terms of how easily instances of it can be recalled, often works well - if the items that are more available (easier to recall) are ACTUALLY more frequent

framing effects

when people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased (or framed)

same information presented in different forms can lead to different decisions

overconfidence effect

phenomenon where an individual has excessive confidence in their ability to overcome challenges or dangers

confidence influences how we make decisions, yet our confidence may not be based on realistic estimate of events/skills and knowledge

anchoring effect

tendency to use the initial value as a reference point in making a numerical estimate -- judgments will differ based on the context (subjects use different anchors)

ex) more/less than 1500 miles --> avg answer = 2600 miles

vs: more/less than 6900 miles --> avg answer 4000 miles

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

general theories of motivation

Instinct, drive, arousal, incentive

instinct theory

view that explains human behavior as motivated by automatic, involuntary, and unlearned responses

environmental releasers trigger fixed response patterns, things in the environment are "releasers" which lead to instinctual pre-programmed responses

Drive Theory (Drive Reduction Theory)

the belief that behavior is motivated by drives that arise from biological needs that demand satisfaction

the notion that physiological needs arouse tension that motivates action

arousal theory

theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation

yerkes-dodson law: certain level of arousal for optimal performance

seek stimulation if bored, relaxation if excited

incentive theory

theory of motivation stating that behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli

intrinsic incentives and extrinsic incentives motivate

intrinsic motivation

activities that are an end unto themselves, e.g. eating, watching cartoons

extrinsic motivation

activities with external rewards or punishments, e.g working, doing chores

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

physiological needs, safety needs, love/belonging needs, esteem needs, self-actualization needs, self-transcendence needs

hunger experiment

Cannon and Washburn (1912) - balloon in stomach showed that stomach contractions lead to hunger (not vice-versa)

Hypothalamus

brain structure that regulates body temp, release of hormones, and monitors glucose levels

lateral hypothalamus (LH)

"hunger center", if stimulate these cells, animal eats and eats; starve to death if it is destroyed

ventromedial hypothalamus (VH)

"satiation center", stimulate this and animal will not eat; destroy it and animal eats and eats

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues, when its level is low, we feel hunger

eating increases this in the bloodstream

leptin

secreted by fat cells, sends signals to brain diminishing reward of food

obesity

extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height, and body type

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which an irrational fear of weight gain leads people to starve themselves

eat way too little to maintain a healthy weight

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

binge and purge -- overeat followed by vomiting, laxatives, etc

Role of self-esteem/media images in eating disorders

correlations of media image and eating disorders (TV in Fiji increased dieting and thoughts of being fat among teen girls)

Fall and Rozin - women ideal weight less than actual and men's more on par, think men prefer lower weight

social motives

Power, Belongingness, Affiliation, Intimacy, Achievement

belongingness motives

"people need people" -- need for affiliation (desire to establish and maintain social contacts) and need for intimacy (desire for close relationships characterized by open and intimate communication)

esteem motives

achievement motivation (strong desire to accomplish difficult tasks, outperform others, and excel) and need for power (strong desire to acquire prestige and influence over other people)

intrinsic motivation - what makes kids want to read

involvement (experience of getting lost in a book), curiosity (interest in subject), preference for challenge (seeking to figure something out)

generally leads to better performance and more interest

extrinsic motivation - what makes kids want to read

recognition (awards/prizes), grades, compliance, competition

Sexual orientation possible determinants

environmental factors - no one has found a solid environmental cause to explain different sexual orientations

genetic factors - identical twins somewhat more likely than fraternal twins to share sexual orientation, prenatal influences like exposure to hormones in the womb affect brain centers involved in sexual behaviours

Freud's topographical model

conscious

preconscious

unconscious

Freud's Conscious

part of the mind we can directly access - open to awareness

content of current awareness

Freud's preconscious

part of the mind that is not consciousness currently, but can be accessed

easy-to-retrieve material, just beneath the surface of awareness

Freud's unconscious

vast portion of the mind to which we have no direct access, but it does influence behaviour

difficult-to-retrieve material well below the surface of awareness

Freud's Structural Model

id, ego, superego

Pyschoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives

goes for immediate gratification, operates on the pleasure principle, primary process - ignores consequences and logistics, in the unconscious, similar to animalistic needs

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

referee between the id and the world, constrained by the reality principle, pragmatic and does what is feasible, secondary process - thinking discriminates between reality and fantasy

Superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

the moral self --> the conscience (prohibitions, knows what is bad and punishes behaviour) and the ego ideal (knows what is good, and rewards behaviour)

the "shoulds" - what parents, law, and society dictate

freudian slip

when you say one thing, but mean to say another

dream analysis

dreams express unconscious wishes, thoughts, and conflicts -- often disguised

manifest content

conscious content, "literal meaning" of dream

latent content

unconscious, "figurative meaning" of dream

pyschosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

oral stage

Freud's first stage of psychosexual development during which pleasure is centered in the mouth (major conflict is ween off nursing)

anal stage

Freud's pychosexual period during which a child learns to control their bodily excretions (major conflict is toilet training)

phallic stage

Freud's third stage of personality development, from about age 4 through age 7, during which children obtain gratification primarily from the genitals

latency stage

the fourth psychosexual stage, in which the primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills

genital stage

Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence)

fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

don't get over major conflict in the stage

Oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

defense mechanisms

According to Freud, people use variety of defense mechanisms to protect themselves from painful emotions