1. Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and only becomes apparent when there is an incentive to demonstrate it. 2. Insight Learning: A sudden realization or “aha” moment in problem-solving, often involving the reorganization of information rather than trial-and-error learning. 3. Modeling: Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others. 4. Vicarious Conditioning: Learning that occurs by observing others being rewarded or punished, influencing the observer’s behavior. 5. Social Learning Theory: A theory proposing that learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling, incorporating cognitive processes in addition to environmental influences. 6. Partial Reinforcement: A reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is not rewarded every time it occurs, making it more resistant to extinction. 7. Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcement schedule in which every instance of a behavior is reinforced, leading to rapid acquisition but less resistance to extinction. 8. Learned Helplessness: A condition in which exposure to uncontrollable aversive events leads to a failure to act or escape, even when opportunities to do so are available. 9. Instinctive Drift: The tendency for an animal’s innate responses to interfere with conditioned behaviors. 10. Shaping: Gradually reinforcing successive approximations of a target behavior until the desired behavior is achieved. 11. Primary Reinforcer: A stimulus that is naturally reinforcing because it satisfies a biological need (e.g., food, water). 12. Law of Effect: Thorndike’s principle stating that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to occur. 13. Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. 14. Reinforcement: A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. 15. Operant Conditioning: Learning in which the consequences of a behavior determine the likelihood of its recurrence. 16. Habituation: A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure, demonstrating a basic form of learning. 17. Preparedness (Biological): The predisposition of certain species to learn associations that have survival value more easily than others. 18. Taste Aversion (Conditioned): A learned avoidance of a particular taste or food after it has been associated with illness or discomfort. 19. Counterconditioning: A technique where an undesirable response is replaced with a desirable one by associating the stimulus with a new response. 20. Higher-Order Conditioning: A process in which a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus. 21. Generalization: The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response. 22. Discrimination (Classical Conditioning): The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond only to the conditioned stimulus. 23. Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction and a rest period. 24. Extinction: The weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. 25. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response. 26. Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus. 27. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior conditioning. 28. Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural, reflexive response to the unconditioned stimulus. 29. Acquisition: The initial stage of learning during which the association between the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus is established. 30. Classical Conditioning: A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, resulting in a conditioned response.

Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of chlorophyll.

Cellular Respiration

The metabolic processes whereby certain organisms convert biochemical energy from nutrients into ATP, and release waste products.

Mitosis

A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells, each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.

Ecosystem

A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.

Natural Selection

The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Homeostasis

The ability or tendency of an organism or cell to maintain internal equilibrium by adjusting its physiological processes.

Biodiversity

The variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem.