Social Psychology and Personality

AP Psych Unit 4

Internal (Dispositional) Attribution

• behavior happened because of who the person is

• personality traits, intelligence, effort, skills, and abilities

Attribution

• explanations that people make about the causes of behavior and mental processes

External Attribution

• behavior happened because of outside factors

• environment, social influences, outside limitations, temporary conditions

Self-serving Bias

• give yourself credit for success (internal attribution)

• blame your failures on outside forces (external attribution)

• ex) if a student gets an “A” on a test, they say “I’m really smart”. If they fail, they say “The test was unfair”.

Explanatory Styles

• the way people usually explain what happens to them, good and bad

• thinking patterns shape how people handle challenges

• optimistic style

  • attributes good events to internal, stable, and global causes

  • views bad events as external, temporary, and specific

  • effect: bounce back from setbacks easily

• pessimistic style

  • sees good events as external, temporary, and specific

  • attributes bad events to internal, stable, and global causes

  • effect: feeling stuck or discouraged

Actor-Observer Bias

• we explain our own actions differently than we explain others’ actions

• when we do something, we blame the situation

• when someone else does the same thing, we blame their personality

• ex) I was late because traffic was terrible; you were late because you’re irresponsible

Fundamental Attribution Error

• overemphasizing personality, underestimating circumstances

• people assume behavior is caused by personality and overlook situational factors

• ex) the cashier is rude; I assume he is a rude person instead of considering he’s having a bad day

Locus of Control

• a person’s belief about what influences their success or failure in life

• develops through experience and affects motivation, decision-making, and how people handle challenges

• balance is important between internal and external locus of control

Internal Locus of Control

• believe that their actions determine what happens to them

• work harder toward goals because they believe effort leads to success; handle stress better; take responsibility for their choices; look for solutions when facing challenges

External Locus of Control

• believe outside forces, like luck, fate, or other people, shape their lives

• experience learned helplessness (feel like they have no power to change their situation)

• have lower motivation because they think their actions don’t matter; blame others or circumstances for their failures; avoid taking risks or trying to solve problems

Mere Exposure Effect

• explains why people tend to like things more simply because they see them often

• repeated exposure to something makes it feel more familiar and comfortable

• brain processes familiar things more easily

• ex) marketing and advertising, music, brand choices, and social relationships

Self-fulfilling Prophecies

• belief or expectation influences behavior in a way that makes the belief come true

• creates a cycle where what we expect ends up becoming reality

1) A person forms an expectation about a situation or another person

2) They act in a way that reflects that belief

3) Others respond based on that behavior

4) The original belief is reinforced, making it seem true

ex) In self-confidence, people who expect to fail may not put in effort, leading to poor results that confirm their doubts

Social Comparison

• people naturally compare themselves to others to understand their own success, abilities, and situation

• comparisons shape self-esteem, motivation, and life satisfaction

• two main types: upward and downward

Upward Comparisons

• people compare themselves to those who are more successful, skilled, or fortunate

• seeing someone do better can be motivating and inspiring

• it can also lower self-esteem if difference feels to large or impossible

Downward Comparisons

• people compare themselves to those who are worse off in some way

• can boost self-esteem by making someone feel more capable/fortunate

• helps provide perspective

• can reduce motivation if people feel too comfortable with their current level of success

Relative Deprivation

• social comparisons create feelings of unfairness

• if people see others with more advantages, they may feel dissatisfied with their own situation

• associated with upward comparison

Stereotypes

• broad generalizations about groups of people; ignore individual differences and reinforce unfair assumptions

• develop as mental shortcuts to help process information quickly

• automatically triggered, influencing judgments without conscious awareness

• factor in shaping both personal beliefs and larger societal structures

Stereotype Formation

• cultural norms and socialization

• personal experiences

• media portrayals

• lack of direct exposure to diverse communities

Implicit Attitudes

• unconscious beliefs and associations that influence thoughts and behaviors without a person realizing it

• attitudes can contradict what someone openly believes and can affect decisions in ways that contribute to inequality

• show up in microaggressions, unconscious discrimination, and selective attention

Just-world Phenomenon

• false belief that success and hardship are always earned rather than influenced by external factors

• the world is fair and people get what they deserve/work for

Out-group Homogeneity Bias

• assumption that members of other groups are all the same while recognizing individuality within one’s own group

In-group Favoritism

• tendency to support and uplift people from one’s own group, often at the expense of others

Ethnocentrism

• habit of viewing one’s own culture as the standard while judging others as inferior or unusual

Belief Perseverance

• when faced with information that contradicts what we believe, we resist changing our views

• people defend existing beliefs even when presented with strong evidence

• happens in several ways

  • seeking out only info that confirms what we already believe while avoiding opposing viewpoints

  • interpreting ambiguous facts in a way that supports our existing perspective

  • dismissing or rationalizing contradictory evidence instead of considering it openly

Strength of Belief Perseverance

Depends on…

• how closely belief is tied to personal identity and worldview

• the emotional significance of the belief

• perceived consequences of changing the belief

• whether alternative explanations feel available or acceptable within person’s social/cultural environment

Cognitive Dissonance

• mismatch between a person’s beliefs, actions, or feelings

• inconsistency creates discomfort

• leads to personal growth and change, but also in rationalizing behavior to avoid discomfort

Experienced when:

• make a difficult decision and later second-guess if you chose correctly

• actions contradict values or beliefs (internal conflict)

• encounter new info that challenges their worldview

Dissonance Resolution

• change beliefs to align with behavior

• modify behavior to match their values

• justify inconsistency by adding new explanations/reasoning

• minimize the importance of the inconsistency, convincing themselves it doesn’t matter

Social Norms and Expectations

• social norms = unspoken rules that guide how people act in different situations

• help people know what is expected in social settings and make interactions more predictable

• influence behavior in many ways

  • tell ppl how to act in different places (ex. polite at formal event)

  • define roles in society

  • change across culture

Types of Social Influence

• social influence - ppl change behavior based on influence of others

• normative influence - ppl adjust behavior to fit within a group; want to be accepted, avoid rejection, or gain approval

  • a teenager starts wearing a certain style of clothes because his friends do

• informational influence - people look to others for guidance in uncertain situations; assume others know the right way to act

  • a person in a fancy restaurant watches others to figure out which fork to use

Persuasion

• process of influencing someone’s thoughts, beliefs, or actions

• through different methods: central or peripheral

Central Route Persuasion

• careful thinking and evaluation of facts and arguments

• leads to stronger, long-lasting attitude changes

• ex) a person chooses a car after researching safety ratings and fuel efficiency

Peripheral Route Persuasion

• relies on emotions, attractiveness, or other superficial factors instead of deep thinking

• can lead to quick but temporary changes in attitude

• ex) a person buys a product because a celebrity endorses it, not because htey know much about it

Common Persuasion Strategies

• Foot-in-the-door technique

  • begins with a small request; once a person agrees, they are more likely to accept a larger request later

  • ex) a neighbor asks to borrow a small tool, then later asks to borrow a more expensive one

• Door-in-the-face technique

  • begins with a large request that is likely to be rejected; then, a smaller, more reasonable request follows, making it seem more acceptable

  • ex) a charity asks for a $100 donation, and when refused, asks for just $10

Conditions for Conformity

• group size affects how much pressure people feel to conform

  • larger group = more influence, but after a certain point, adding people does not increase conformity

• unanimity strengthens conformity

  • when everyone in a group agrees, individuals are less likely to speak up

  • even one dissenter makes it easier for others to resist pressure

• task difficulty and ambiguity increase conformity

• personal importance of the issue decreases conformity

Conditions for Obedience

• dependent on who is giving the orders and the situation they are in

• increases when people trust an authority figure and feel less personally responsible for their actions

• authority figure’s influence

  • people obey more when the person giving orders seems powerful

  • if the authority figure is nearby, obedience increases; vice versa

• situational factors that affect obedience

  • when orders start small and build up gradually, people are more likely to keep following them

  • if responsibility is shared among a group, people feel less accountable and are more likely to obey

Cultural Influences on Perceptions

• cultures shape how people see the world and interact with others

• different cultural values influence whether individuals focus more on personal achievement or group connections

• individualistic cultures

  • personal goals and self-expression

• collectivistic cultures

  • individuals are expected to follow group norms and put community first

  • harmony and cooperation

• multiculturalism values diversity and allows different cultural perspectives to coexist

Group-Decision Making

• group polarization - discussions with like-minded people strengthen existing opinions, making attitudes more extreme

• groupthink - desire for agreement causes people to ignore alternative viewpoints and critical thinking

Individual Behavior Shifts in Group Setting

• Diffusion of Responsibility - people feel less personally accountable for their actions

  • the larger the group, the easier it is to assume everyone else will take responsibility

• Social Loafing - individuals put in less effort because they assume others will contribute

  • common in group projects

• Deindividuation - people lose their sense of self-awareness and restraint in a crowd

  • leading to impulsive or risky behavior

Social Facilitation in Groups

• presence of others can change how well someone performs a task

• presence of others increases arousal, which can be helpful for easy tasks but overwhelming for complex ones

• whether performance improves or worsens depends on how familiar or difficult the task is

  • when task is simple, having an audience can improve performance

  • when task is difficult or unfamiliar, the presence of others can hurt performance

False Consensus Effect

• cognitive bias where people assume that their own beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors are more widely shared than they actually are

• leads to an overestimation of how many others think or act the same way

Superordinate Goals

• shared objectives that require cooperation among different groups

• reduces intergroup conflict and promotes positive interactions

Social Traps

• individuals prioritize short-term self-interest over long-term collective well-being

• leads to suboptimal outcomes for the group

Industrial-Organizational Psychology Concepts

• employee well-being factors

  • job satisfaction

  • burnout

• organizational dynamics

  • organizational culture encompasses shared values, beliefs, and practices within a company

  • shapes employee behavior, communication, and decision-making processes

Altruism and Social Norms

• helping behavior is governed by two primary social norms

• social reciprocity norm - people help others with the expectation of future reciprocation

  • helping behavior creates a sense of social debt that the recipient feels obligated to repay

• social responsibility norm - dictates that people should assist those in need without expecting anything in return

  • reinforced by societal values and the belief that helping is the right thing to do

Bystander Effect

Influenced by the following:

• emergency response inhibitors

  • diffusion of responsibility occurs when the presence of others reduces individual accountability

  • pluralistic ignorance arises when individuals mistakenly believe that others are interpreting the situation differently

• personal concerns

  • evaluation apprehension is the fear of being judged negatively by others for one’s actions

  • concerns about appearing foolish or overreacting

Psychodynamic Theory of Personality

• based on idea that our personality is shaped by unconscious influences - things happening in our mind that we aren’t aware of

• hidden forces affect how we act, feel, think

• shaped by childhood experiences

• Sigmund Freud theory

Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory

• id = wants instant pleasure and doesn’t think about consequences

• ego = balances the id’s desires with reality, making sure we act in a socially acceptable way

• superego = our conscience, guiding us with moral values and a sense of right and wrong

Ego Defense Mechanisms

• help the mind handle stress and difficult emotions without us realizing it

• change how we see or react to a situation to make it feel less overwhelming

Denial

• someone refuses to accept the truth because its too painful

• person with drinking problem might say, “I don’t drink that much” even if it affects their life

Displacement

• someone takes out their emotions on the wrong person or thing

• if someone is mad at their boss but can’t show it, they might go home and yell at their family instead

Projection

• person blames others for their own feelings

• if someone feels guilty about lying, they might accuse a friend of being dishonest instead

Rationalization

• making excuses to avoid feeling bad about something

• student who fails test might say “the teacher hates me” instead of admitting they didn’t study

Reaction Formation

• acting the opposite of how you really feel

• if someone secretly feels insecure, they might act overly confident to hide it

Regression

• a person deals with stress by acting younger than they are

• an adult might throw a tantrum when things don’t go their way

Repression

• the mind pushes away painful thoughts or memories

• person who had a tough childhood might not remember much about it

Sublimation —- IDEAL

• turning negative feelings into something positive

• instead of getting angry and lashing out, someone might channel frustration into painting or exercise

Projective Tests for Assessment

• type of personality tests that help reveal hidden thoughts and feelings

• subconscious mind influences their answers

• Rorschach Inkblot Test - person looks at series of inkblots and describes what they see

• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - person shown pictures of people in different situations and asked to make up a story about what’s happening

Humanistic Theory of Personality

• sees personality as shaped by a person’s experiences, choices, and natural drive to grow

• focuses on how people view themselves and their potential rather than on unconscious conflicts or fixed traits

• key ideas: unconditional positive regard & self-actualizing tendency

Unconditional Positive Regard

• feeling valued and accepted no matter what

• when people receive love and support without conditions, they develop a healthier self-image and confidence

Self-actualizing Tendency

• natural motivation to grow, improve, and reach one’s full potential

• means developing talents, setting personal goals, or striving for a meaningful life

Humanistic Psychologists Personality Assessments

• focus on personal experiences rather than strict tests

• interviews and open-ended conversations to understand how a person sees themselves and their lives

• self-report questionnaires that explore persona growth, values, and self-perceptions

Social-cognitive Theory

• views personality as shaped by interactions between thoughts, behaviors, and environment

• self-concept, self-efficacy, and self-esteem influence how we perceive ourselves and interact with the world around us

Reciprocal Determinism

• explains how personality develops through constant interaction of thoughts, behaviors, and environment (social-cognitive theory)

• person’s actions influence their surroundings, which then shape thoughts and future behaviors

• Key factors

  • personal (thoughts, emotions, biology)

  • behavioral (choices, habits, actions)

  • environmental (social influences, surroundings)

• change in one (personal, behavioral, environmental) can shape the rest

Self-Concept

• through reciprocal determinism, people form self-concept

• refers to how people see themselves in relation to others

• includes abilities, social roles, and future goals

Influences on Self-Concept

• self-efficacy — belief in one’s ability to succeed, affecting motivation, perseverance, and resilience

• self-esteem — overall self-worth, impacting confidence, emotions, and relationships

Trait Theories of Personality

• suggest that personality is made up of stable characteristics that influence how a person consistently thinks, feels, and behaves

• traits remain relatively constant over time and shape how individuals respond to different situations

Big Five Personality Traits

• five major traits that remain relatively stable over time and influence how people think, feel, and behave

• traits are measured using personality inventories that apply factor analysis

  • factor analysis — a statistical method that groups related responses together to identify underlying personality patterns

Big Five - OCEAN

• openness to experience - curiosity, imagination, and willingness to try new things

• conscientiousness - relates to responsibility, organization, and discipline

• extraversion - describes how outgoing, energetic, and social a person is

• agreeableness - measures kindness, cooperation, and empathy

• neuroticism (emotional stability) - indicates how well a person handles stress and negative emotions

Motivation

• drives human behavior, influencing our actions and decisions

• why we do what we do (from basic physiological needs to complex psychological factors)

Drive-reduction Theory

• we act to satisfy basic needs

• goal is homeostasis - keeping our body in balance

• ex) you haven’t eaten, so you feel hungry (drive) and get food (reduces drive)

Arousal Theory

• we seek the right amount of stimulation

• too little stimulation makes us bored, and too much makes us anxious

• we each have our own “sweet spot” of arousal

• ex) some people love roller coasters while others prefer reading

Yerkes-Dodson Law

• very low arousal = poor performance (too sleepy/bored)

• medium arousal = best performance (alert and focused)

• very high arousal = poor performance (stressed/anxious)

Self-Determination Theory

• satisfying three basic psychological needs — autonomy, competence, and relatedness — is essential for optimal motivation

• distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

  • intrinsic motivation comes from within

    • personal satisfaction, curiosity, growth

  • external motivation comes from outside sources

    • praise, money, recognition, or avoiding negative outcomes

Incentive Theory

• focuses on how rewards motivate behavior

• positive incentives encourage behavior

• negative incentives discourage behavior

• strength of incentive affects motivation (“size” and quality)

Instincts

• non-human animals rely on instincts to guide their behavior

• innate patterns that don’t require learning

• ex) baby turtles move towards ocean after hatching

Human Behavior vs. Instincts

• few instinctual behaviors

• learned through observation and experience

• culturally transmitted between generations

• modified based on context and environment

• influenced by conscious thought and decision-making

• explains why human behavior is so flexible and varies dramatically across cultures, while animal behavior within a species remains relatively consistent

Human Instincts

• infant rooting reflex (turning head towards touch on cheek)

• fear response to sudden loud noises

• basic facial expressions for emotions

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts

• motivation often comes from conflicts we experience when making choices

• conflicts create inner tension that drives you to resolve conflicts and motivates your actions

• conflicts arise because every decision involves weighing different options

• approach-approach

  • must choose between two attractive options

• approach-avoidance

  • one option has both positive and negative aspects; to-do or not-to-do

• avoidance-avoidance

  • both choices are unattractive

Sensation-Seeking Theory

• motivation can come from a desire for new or exciting experiences

• people are driven by a need for variety or novel activities

• types include:

  • experience seeking

  • thrill or adventure seeking

  • disinhibition (situations that lower self-control or social norms)

  • boredom susceptibility (hard to tolerate repetitive/dull situations)

Eating as a Motivated Behavior

• physical and mental processes work together, influenced by internal signals and external factors

• hormonal influences

  • ghrelin - hunger

  • leptin - fullness

  • hormones regulated by the hypothalamus through the pituitary gland

• external influences

  • presence of food

  • time of day and established meal schedule

  • social settings (e.g. gatherings around meals)

Emotion

• complex psychological processes influenced by internal and external factors

• influence how a person feels

• theories of emotion focus on the relationship between a person’s thoughts and physical reactions

Sequential Theories of Emotion

• emotions happen in steps

• first, the body reacts (e.g. increased heart rate)

• then, the brain interprets that reaction as an emotion

Simultaneous Theories

• physical reactions and emotional experiences happen at the same time rather than one causing the other

Cognitive Labeling Theories

• for an emotion to be fully experienced, the brain must label it

• a person needs to consciously identify what they are feeling

Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

• person’s facial expressions can influence their emotions

• smiling might make someone feel happier, while frowning makes them sadder

• supports theories that claim physical responses come first and influence emotional experiences

Broaden-and-Build Theory

• both positive and negative emotions serve essential functions in human experience and survival

• emotions influence how people think and behave

• positive emotions

  • help broaden a person’s awareness and encourage exploration, leading to long-term personal growth

  • can create enhanced health, greater problem-solving and creativity, and stronger social bonds

• negative emotions

  • narrow a person’s focus on immediate threats or problems

  • can be useful in dangerous situations but may also limit long-term growth

  • can lead to heightened stress response, limited cognitive processing and rigid thinking, and potential strain on relationships

• positive emotions help people expand thinking and develop valuable resources over time, while negative emotions prioritize short-term survival needs

Social Influences on Emotions

• some basic emotions may be universal across human cultures

  • anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear

• emotional expressions may have an evolutionary basis

  • facilitate survival — fear helps ppl react to danger, disgust helps avoid harmful substances

  • enable social cooperation

  • support group cohesion

Emotional Expression and Social Norms

• social norms regulate how emotions should be expressed in different situations

• social norms vary based on

  • culture (open emotional expression vs emotional restraint)

  • gender

  • age

  • socioeconomic status

Emotional Expression and Culture

• what makes one person feel pride, shame, or anger depends on cultural values and norms

• some cultures emphasize group harmony, meaning anger might be discouraged in social settings

• other cultures value individual expression, making it more acceptable to openly display emotions