AP Psych Unit 0 (1.3): Scientific Foundations of Psychology (Research Methods)

Basic Research

Increasing the scientific knowledge base.

Applied Research

Research to find solutions to specific problems.

Quantitative Data

Numerical type of data.

Qualitative Data

Non-numerical and descriptive type of data.

Descriptive Research

These studies are used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured.

Case Study

An observation technique in which one individual or just a few individuals are carefully studied in-depth.

Strength of Case Studies

Provide enormous amounts of information. Unusual cases can shed light on situations or problems that are unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Limitation of Case Studies

Unrepresentative with the potential to apply what’s learned to the average person (larger population) may be very limited.

Survey Method (Technique)

Self-report data, relies on the individual’s own report of their symptoms, behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes.

Wording Effects

Possible effects on participants caused by the order of presented words or even the choice of the words themselves.

Strength of Survey Method

Ability to get private information and tremendous amount of data on a very large group of people.

Limitation of Survey Method

People don’t always give accurate responses. They may lie, misremember, or answer questions in a way that they think makes them look good.

Naturalistic Observation (Technique)

Careful observations of animals or people in their natural/native environment, no attempts at intervention on the part of researcher.

Tally Counts

The observer writes down when and how many times certain behaviors occurred.

Observer Narratives

The observer may take notes during the session and then go back later to try to collect data and discern behavior patterns from these notes.

Audio or Video Recordings

Depending on the type of behavior being observed, the researchers might also decide to make actual audio or videotaped recordings of each observation session.

Laboratory Observation

involves observing behavior in a more contrived and controlled situation, usually the laboratory.

Observer Effect

When people know they are being watched, they are less likely to behave naturally.

Hawthorne Effect

Individuals may change their behavior due to the attention they are receiving from researchers rather than because of any manipulation of independent variables.

Observer Bias “Researcher Bias'“

People who act as observers are closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations.

Strength of Laboratory Observation

Allows the investigators to directly observe the subject in a natural setting. Often useful in first stages of a research program.

Limitation of Laboratory Observation

Allows researcher little or no control of the situation. Observations may be biased. Does not allow firm conclusions about cause and effect.

Correlational Studies

Research used to see if two variable are related and to make predictions based on the relationship.

Strength of Correlational Studies

Correlation allows the researcher to clearly and easily see if there is a relationship between variables. Predictive value.

Limitation of Correlational Studies

Correlation is not and cannot be taken to imply causation.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

The direction of the relationship between variable and its strength, helps us figure how closely two things vary together, and thus how well either one predicts the other. (Range from +1.00 and -1.00)

Strong Correlation Coefficient (r)

Strong relationship, the number will be closer to +1.00 or to -1.00. (Predictable)

Weak Correlation Coefficient

Closer the number is to zero the weaker the relationship. (Less predictable)

Scatterplot

A type of data display that shows the relationship between two numerical variables.

Positive (0, +1) Correlation Coefficient: “Statistical Measure”

One variable increases so does the other, and when one variable decreases so does the other.

Negative (0,-1) Correlation Coefficient: “Statistical Measure”

A decrease in one variable is associated with an increase in the other and vice versa.

Illusory Correlation “No Correlation”

A perceived but nonexistent correlation. (Correlation coefficient of 0)

Third Variable Problem

Researchers cannot rule out the possibility that a third variable causes both of the other variables to increase or decrease.