Chapter 9: Language

Language

Spoken, signed or written set of symbols used to communicate

Language Production

The structured and conventional expression of thoughts through words

Speech

The expression of language through sounds

Language comprehension

The ability/process of understanding spoken, written or signed language

Language structure

Phonology
Semantics
Syntax
Pragmatics

Phonemes

Smallest unit of sounds in language
Individual sounds: ba, da, ta...

Phonology

Study of how individual sounds are used to produce language

Morphemes

Smallest units of language that convey meaning

Semantics

Study of the meaning of words
"It's raining cats and dogs"
"That's the way the cookie crumbles"

Meaning in language

Constructed through individual words and sentences

Lexical meaning

The dictionary meaning of a word; can change over time

Non-lexical sounds

Sounds that require observational experience to understand how and when they are used in social interactions
"hmmm" or "ahhh"

Syntax

The way in which words are constructed into sentences - process of using semantics (words) to covey grammar (meaning)
Influenced by the environment

Pragmatics

Practical aspects of language:
- Pace of speech
- Gesturing
- Body language

Non-verbal communication

Body language
Acquired automatically and often by observing the actions of others

Language development

Pre-vocal learning
Cooing
Babbling
First words
Telegraphic speech
Pragmatics
Grammar

Pre-vocal learning

2-4 months
Babies perceive all phonemes - those within and outside the language they will ultimately learn
Ability to discern language declines as we age

Phoneme pruning

Occurs without specific training - allows babies to tune into and acquire the language(s) being spoken around them

Cooing

2 months
Babies are able to produce vowel sounds
Largely appear when interacting with others

Babbling

6 months
Refers to the production of meaningless sounds
Enables babies to experiment with vocalizations

First words

1 year
Babies can form simple words - "mama" "dada"
Babies demonstrate learning semantics
Babies are able to comprehend much more than they can speak

Telegraphic speech

Age 2
Speech that consists of minimalistic sentences; where all but essential words are emitted
"I want cookie" - "Want cookie"

Pragmatics in babies

Age 3
Babies have naturally acquired practical info about language use:
- The need to pause between sentences
- The knowledge that certain sentences are statements

Grammar

Age 4
Automatically absorbed by toddlers through regularly speaking their native language
Influenced by the environment

Critical period

A window of time in development during which certain influences are NECESSARY for appropriate brain formation - after CP these influences have no significant impact on the brain

Sensitive period

A point in development during which the brain is more susceptible to influences - after SP changes can still occur but not readily

Child directed speech

Speech characterized by high pitch, exaggerated emotions and slower pace
Used cross-culturally among care givers of babies and young children
Arises naturally - suggesting that we have a biological predisposition to teach effective communication to the very young

Benefits of child-directed speech

Fosters close emotional relationship between child and care giver; which enhances quality and quantity of communication

Overregularization

Speech errors in which children treat irregular forms of words as if they were regular
Saying "goed" instead of "went"
Saying "thinked" instead of "thought"

Broca's area

Controls ability to speak

Wernicke's area

Controls language comprehension

Broca's aphasia

Expressive communication disorder
Individuals struggle to PRODUCE speech
Inability to implement grammatically correct expressive language although person understands question through receptive language

Agrammatism

Condition when individuals are unable to produce sentences that are grammatically correct

Wernike's Aphasia

Receptive disorder of communication
Person produces grammatical, meaningless output - speech is effortless but makes no sense
Disorder of semantics
Individual implement expressive language but has difficulty understanding receptive language
They are able to answer when asked a question but their response lacks any grammar and makes absolutely no sense

Gender differences in language

Girls tend to acquire speech and language comprehension faster than boys - observable during elementary school years, by young adulthood these difference have disappeared

Language has a direct impact on...

Semantics

Communication is facilitated by...

Emotions

Creativity is most related to...

Algorithms

Semantic networks are shaped by...

Context

Semantic networks are...

Associative

Mental imagery

Picturing things in your mind
Does not involve language
Problem solving is closely related to our ability to utilize imagery

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

Theory suggesting that an individuals vocabulary available for objects/concepts in language influences how speakers of that language think about them
Evidence from cross-cultural studies

Cognition

The mental activities associated with mental imagery and spatial navigation

Controlled processing

Requires effort and attention

Automatic processing

Effortless processing
"Having a conversation with a passenger while driving"

Cognitive control

The ability to align thought in order to complete a goal or satisfy our intentions

Executive functioning

Brains ability to control/manage the mental processing of info - will fine tune as we age; we are able to better control impulses and make responsible decisions

Problem solving

Determining how to reach a goal

Well-defined problems

Problems easy to discern
Problems with clear strategy for solving
Problems with an easily definable outcome
"Arithmetic problems"

Ill-defined problems

Problems difficult to discern
Problems with no clear solution
Problems where difficult to define a desired outcome
"How to deal with a messy roommate"

Algorithm

Problem solving strategy that always leads to a solution

Heuristics

A shortcut thinking strategy
Assist in finding a satisfactory solution but does not guarantee a correct answer
Save time a effort but risky

Heuristic strategies

Working backwards
Forming subgoals
Searching for analogies

Working backwards

Beginning with your goal and thinking backwards by imagining the steps it would take to move from your desired goal to your current state; then reversing the order to solve your goal

Forming subgoals

Dividing a larger problem into smaller ones
Hanoi problem

Searching for analogies

Problem solving by recalling similar problems you have encountered in the past

Insight

Problem solving strategy requiring no intense effort or concentration
Provides a sudden solution
Described as "eureka"
Often occurs following an incubation period

Incubation period

Mentally setting aside a problem; allowing us to return to the problem and

Mental Set

Tendency to use problem solving methods that have worked in the past

Functional fixedness

Tendency to view objects as only having one function

Confirmation bias

Tendency to look for information that meets our expectations when solving problems

Decision making

Evaluating and choosing from among options

Decision making - heuristics

Utilizes heuristic shortcuts - sometimes successful but will often lead to reaching incorrect decision

Representational heuristics

The assumption that individual objects or people belong to one category if they share similar characteristics

Availability heuristics

The tendency to think that infrequent but memorable events; plane crashes/tsunamis, are more common than they actually are
Affects decision making because we tend to rely on more recently stored memories to make judgements

Rational decision making

Decision making based on assumptions that we have information available to us about all possible alternatives and the time to ponder this information

Bounded rationality theory

The ability to make decisions in a rational, logical manner is limited by things like: lack of info, time constraints and emotion attached to aspects of the problem we are trying to solve

Irrational decision making

Driven by emotions and "gut instinct" rather than pure reasoning to make decisions
Research suggests that we make decisions in part based on our anticipation of how we will feel is we make a bad choice - we try hard to avoid making decisions we will regret later

Metacognition

Thinking about one's own thoughts

Self-reflection

Thinking about our own identities; how we influence others and our relative self-worth
Enables us to identify, evaluate and modify our responses based on our past experience

Excessive self-reflection can cause psychological disorders; anxiety and depression

Theory of mind

The awareness of one's own thinking and the thinking of others by watching/hearing about the other persons action
An adaptive trait - facilitates communication and peaceful living with others

Language vs language comprehension vs language production

Language: set of symbols used to communicate
Language comprehension: understanding of verbal messages
Language production: creation of language

Heuristic limitations

Mental sets
Functional fixedness
Conformation bias

Semantic concepts

A mental representation of an idea or meaning

Feature comparison model

Assumes that semantic memory includes characteristic and defining features of concepts

Defining features

Features necessary for the meaning of the item

Characteristic features

Features that provide description but are not essential

A-typicality effect

Fluctuations in the ability to create a mental representation based on the likelihood of features

Semantic Networks

Associations between concepts (integration) and properties (traits) depending on context

Heuristic reasoning

Develop solution
Quick but error prone
Superficial - perceptual

Algorithmic reasoning

Apply's rules
Slow but accurate
Logical - cognitive

Creativity

"The ability to transfer knowledge"
"The ability to produce new and valuable ideas"
Dependent on:
- Insight
- Mental sets vs flat hierarchies - remote associations
- Expertise

Flat hierarchies

Creation of categories through remote associations

Expertise

Utilizes creativity and memory in a symbiotic relationship
Accumulated knowledge of information through chunking

Problem finding

The ability to discover new problems, their methods and solutions
Process of breaking down a problem into sections with imaginative thinking skills to understand why we need to solve that problem

Language as communication...

Linguistics

Categorical thinking

Expressive language
Receptive language

Language

Mental representation...
Arbitrary
Dynamic
Communicative
Structured
Generative

Universal grammar

Symbolic representation...
Different across languages
Deep structure
Surface structure
Grammar

Deep structure

The meaning of a sentence
Semantics

Surface structure

The ordering of words within a sentence
Syntax

Thinking and language

"language determines the way we think"
The connotation (idea or feeling) of words will influence the way we perceive the word

Language sensation

Involves the organization of incoming stimuli
Conceptualization
Attention

Language perception

The process of making distinctions and connections after hearing a word
Associating words with meanings and concepts
Pink - girl
Blue - boy
Green - nature

Language and semantic networks

Language emerges from semantic networks (categories)
Relies on learning and memory
Related to creativity and insight - problem solving

Expressive Language (production)

The outward vocalization and production of language
Facilitates the communication of affect and ideas

Communication of affect

Tendency to use expressive states; facial expressions and body language to communicate emotions
"Yucky vs yummy"

Communication of ideas

Relies on referential skills to decipher something occurring within the environment
- Fine motor skills
- Motivation
- Pragmatics (gestures)

Abstractification

The inability to relate to what is in front of us

Receptive language (comprehension)

Comprehension of speech and signals
Process of understanding the environment first and thinking to apply expressive language second
Developed before production
Relies on: attention/memory, non-verbal signals and reciprocity