Semester 1 Review

psychobiology

the area of psychology that focuses on the biological foundations of behavior and mental processes

neuroscience

the study of the brain and the nervous system

neurons

individual cells that are the smallest unit of the nervous system

dendrites

short fibers that branch out from the cell body and pick up incoming messages

axon

single long fiber extending from the cell body; it carries outgoing messages

nerve (or tract)

group of axons bundled together

myelin sheath

white fatty covering found on some axons

sensory (or afferent) neurons

neurons that carry messages from sense organs to the spinal cord or brain

motor (or efferent) neurons

neurons that carry messages from the spinal cord or brain to muscles and glands

interneurons (or association neurons)

neurons that carry messages from one neuron to another

mirror neurons

specialized neurons that respond when we observe other perform a behavior or express an emotion

glial cells

cells that insulate and support neurons by holding them together, provide nourishment and remove waste products, prevent harmful substances from passing into the brain, and form the myelin sheath

resting potential

electrical charge across a neuron membrane resulting from more positive ions concentrated on the outside and more negative ions on the inside

polarization

the condition of a neuron when the inside is negatively charged relative to the outside; for example when the neuron is at rest (depolarization\=opposite)

neural impulse (or action potential)

the firing of a nerve cell

graded potential

a shift in the electrical charge in a tiny area of a neuron

threshold of excitation

the level an impulse must exceed to cause a neuron to fire

all-or-none principle

principle that the action potential in a neuron does not vary in strength; either the neuron fires at full strength, or it does not fire at all

synapse

area composed of the axon terminal of one neuron, the synaptic space, and the dendrite or cell body of the next neuron

terminal button (or synaptic knob)

structure at the end of an axon terminal branch

synaptic vesicles

tiny sacs in a terminal button that release chemicals into the synapse

neurotransmitters

chemicals released by the synaptic vesicles that travel across the synaptic space and affect adjacent neurons

receptor sites

locations on a receptor neuron into which a specific neurotransmitter fits like a key into a lock

neural plasticity

the ability of the brain to change in response to experience

neural network

a group of neurons that are functionally connected

neurogenesis

the growth of new neurons

Acetylcholine (ACh)

distributed widely throughout the central nervous system, where it is involved in arousal, attention, memory, motivation, and movement. Involved in muscle action through presence at neuromuscular junctions (specialized types of synapse where neurons connect to muscle cells). Degeneration of neurons that produce ACh has been linked to Alzheimer's disease. Too much ACh can lead to spasms and tremors; too lithe, to paralysis or torpor

Dopamine

involved in a wide variety of behaviors and emotions, including pleasure and pain. Implicated in schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease

Serotonin

involved in regulation of sleep, dreaming, mood, eating, pain, and aggressive behavior. Implicated in depression

Norepinephrine

affects arousal, wakefulness, learning, memory, and mood

Endorphins

involved in the inhibition of pain. Released during strenuous exercise. May be responsible for "runners high"

GABA (Gamma aminobutyric acid)

a largely inhibitory neurotransmitter distributed widely throughout the central nervous system. Implicated in sleep and eating disorders, GABA has also been linked to extreme anxiety

Glutamate

involved in learning and memory and perception of pain

Caffeine

blocks the action of adenosine, a transmitter that inhibits the release of other neurotransmitters such as epinephrine. Without the restraining affects of adenosine, more of these other excitatory, arousing neurotransmitters are released. Two or three cups of coffee contain enough caffeine to block half the adenosine recpetors for several hours, producing a high state of arousal and in some cases, anxiety and insomnia

Cocaine

prevents dopamine from being reabsorbed from the synapse after it has done its job of stimulating the next neuron. As a result, excess amounts of dopamine accumulate in the synapses, producing heightened arousal of the entire nervous system

Antidepressant medications

work by preventing or slowing the removal of neurotransmitters from synapse

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.

Reuptake

A process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane.

Schwann cells

Glial cells that are located in the peripheral nervous system and that form the myelin sheath around the axon of a neuron

Nodes of Ranvier

The small gaps in the myelin sheath between successive glial cells along the axon of a neuron; also, the site of high concentration of voltage-gated ion channels.

Agonist

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter

Acetylcholine

A critical neurotransmitter that controls functions such as memory, attention, sleep, heart rate, and muscular activity.

Peripheral Nervous System

A division of the nervous system consisting of all nerves that are not part of the brain or spinal cord.

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord

Autonomic Nervous System

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Somatic Nervous System

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Enables voluntary actions to be undertaken due to its control of skeletal muscles

Sympathetic Nervous System

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

activates body during emergency situations (fight or flight response)

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that acts to calm the body, maintain bodily functions, and conserve energy. When this is activated, the body is in a state of "rest and digest" as all the bodily systems slow down except for digestion. This is key to replenishment of bodily resources.

Reflex arch

-the path over which the reflex travels which typically includes a receptor, sensory or afferent neuron, interneuron, motor or efferent neuron, and effector.

Limbic System

A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

Hippocampus

A curved forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new memories.

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Thalamus

Forms the major portion of the diencephalon (80%). Serves as the "switchboard" operator of the brain. It receives and sorts sensory information then directs it to the appropriate area of the the cerebrum for further processing.

Reticular Formation

The network of nerves running vertically through the brainstem and extending to the thalamus responsible for arousal to stimuli, sleep, attentiveness, and the filtering of incoming stimuli. Damage can result in coma or death.

Medulla

A portion of the brainstem that regulates vital functions, including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Spinal Cord

a major part of the central nervous system which conducts sensory and motor nerve impulses to and from the brain

Cerebellum

Coordinates the actions of your muscles and helps you keep your balance, "little brain"

Glial Cells

supportive cells of nervous system that guide growth of new neurons; forms myelin sheath; holds neuron in place; provides nourishment and removes waste

Frontal Lobe

Largest and longest lobe in each hemisphere. Located in the upper forward half. Association areas are involved with planning, problem-solving, personality, decision making, controlling emotions and speech production

Parietal Lobe

Portion behind to the frontal lobe, responsible for sensations such as pain, temperature, and touch.

Temporal Lobe

Part of the brain that processes auditory and olfactory information. Associated with emotion, language, and memory formation.

Occipital Lobe

Part of the cerebral hemisphere that receives and interprets visual information.

Motor Cortex

an area of the brain, near the rear of the frontal lobes, that controls voluntary movement

Sensory Cortex

area at the front of the parietal loves that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Wilder Penfield

Famous Neuroscientist, mapped the sensory cortex in the parietal lobe by keeping patients awake during brain surgery and stimulating cells to identify each region's function.

Phineas Gage

\=a railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

Association Areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Brain Lateralization

The organization of the brain into right and left hemispheres, with each hemisphere performing unique and specialized functions

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Broca's Area

-a region of the frontal lobe of the brain that is involved in production of speech

Wernicke's Area

specific area in the temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension

Brain Plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Neurogenesis

the growth of new neurons

Roger Sperry

surgery designed to treat epileptics by severing the corpus callosum; contributed greatly to understanding the lateralization of brain function

Michael Gazzaniga

involved in the development of the operation of splitting the two hemispheres of the brain to treat severe epilepsy

Continued Roger Sperry's research by advancing understanding of how the two cerebral hemispheres communicate with one another.

Split Brain

A condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.

Dual Processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Blindsight

when a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

Chromosome

A threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome consists of one very long DNA molecule and associated proteins.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Genes

A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait

Genome

All the genetic information in an organism; all of an organism's chromosomes.

Identical Twins

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

Fraternal Twins

Twins who develop from separate eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Endocrine System

The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Assists the Nervous system in homeostasis and plays important roles in growth and sexual maturation. These two systems meet at the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Has more long lasting and widespread effects then the Nervous system.

Hormones

Chemical substances produced in certain glands that help to regulate the way your body functions.

Thyroid Gland

Affects metabolism

Parathyroids

help regulate the level of calcium in the blood

Adrenal Gland

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Pancreas

A gland that produces insulin and digestive enzymes

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Testes

male reproductive organ that produces sperm and hormones

Ovary

Organ of the female reproductive system in which eggs and estrogen are produced.