hybridisation and electronic effects

what is hybridisation

the mixing of atomic orbitals in order to change their energies

explain sp³ hybridisation with a diagram. what type of bonds are formed?

in order for C to form 4 single bonds, each valence electron has ¼ s orbital character and ¾ p-orbital character. without it, carbon would have only 2 unpaired electrons but hybridisation gives it 4 to make 4 bonds.

sigma bonds formed.

explain sp2 hybridisation with a diagram. what types of bonds are formed?

the s orbital and 2 of the p orbtials become hybridised to have 1/3 s orbital and 2/3 p orbital character. the 3rd p orbital stays at its original energy. this allows for 2 sigma bonds and 1 pi bond (from the p orbital that doesnt hybridise which overlaps with the same p orbital of another atom).

explain sp hybridisation with a diagram. what types of bonds are formed.

the s orbital and one p orbital hybridise to have half s and p character each and allow 2 sigma bonds to form. the remaining p orbtials allow 2 pi bonds to be formed

what type of bonds do hybridised orbitals form

sigma

what are inductive effects

the way in which electronegative atoms polarise electron density in the sigma bond framework of a molecule

what are the 2 types of inductive effects and with what sort of atoms do they occur

-I = electron-withdrawing effects - the atom is more electronegative than carbon

+I = electron-donating effects - the atom is less electronegative than carbon

what are carbocations

organic intermediates with a positive charge

how are cations stabilised

having more +I groups (e.g. CH3 groups)