PSYC 2245 - Chapter 10 Prosocial Behaviour

Prosocial Behaviour

Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person or animal

Altruism

The desire to help others even if it involves a cost to the helper. Some acts of prosocial behaviour do not fall under this category 

Evolutionary Views of Prosocial Behaviour

If you were a gene you would want to 1. Survive, 2. Reproduce, 3. Help others survive.

Kin Selection

The idea that behaviour helps a genetic relative is favoured by natural selection. Helping a relative that shares the same genes as you (Parents, children etc.)

Evidence:

• Humans saving their immediate family before someone else

• Animals - shows more support for this theory because there is no need to be close or know someone better

Norm of Reciprocity

The expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future.

Evidence:

• Humans - Person finds food and shares it, later the other person will share food when they find it

• Animals - Monkeys groom each other, wolves survive in packs, woodpeckers babysit other couples babies while they get food

Learning General Social Norms 

The idea that we will have a survival advantage if we learn and follow social norms.

• Social norms about helping others - that you should do it 

• Explains a bit more about why people might do things (Doesn’t need to be family or give back)

Social Exchange Theory of Helping

Whether people help depends on the rewards and costs involved

• Rewards: Social approval, feel good about yourself (self-perception theory), future help (reciprocal), financial rewards, improved mood, avoiding trauma

• Costs: Impacts physical health (danger), energy, time, sense of responsibility, lower mood, fear of failure, judgement (social disapproval), legal implications, long term effects, fear of trauma

Sometimes people help even with a lot of costs

Empathy

The ability to experience events and emotions the way another person experiences them. Experiencing and taking the perspective of another person.

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

The idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help them purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain. If you don’t feel empathy, we will look at it from a social exchange perspective

Motivations for Prosocial Behaviour

1. Helping is instinctive to promote the welfare of those genetically similar to us (Evolutionary)

2. The rewards of helping often outweigh the costs, so helping is in our self-interest (Social Exchange Theory)

3. Powerful feelings of empathy for others prompt selfless giving (Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis)

Altruistic Personality

A personality trait characterized by qualities such as sympathy, empathy, and felt responsibility to help others across a wide variety of situations. 

How Does Gender Influence Prosocial Behaviour?

In most cultures, norms prescribe different traits and behaviours for males and females, men in Western societies are expected to be chivalrous and heroic while women are expected to be nurturing and caring. Awards with a title of “bravery” tend to be given to men while awards with the title of “caring” were given to women with traits higher in nurturance and more optimism.

How Does Socioeconomic Status Influence Prosocial Behaviour?

Those with lower SES often give more than those in higher SES groups.

• People with lower SES are more concerned with the needs of others than those who have higher SES leading them to act in more prosocial ways.

• Lower SES people tend to develop more communal self-concepts, they define themselves more in terms of social connection to others.

• Higher SES people tend to define themselves more in terms of an individual person’s capacity for personal control.

In-Group

The group with which an individual identifies and of which they feel a member of.

Out-Group

A group with which an individual does not identify.

How Do Cultural Differences Influence Prosocial Behaviour

People often favour their in-groups, groups that they identify with and discriminate against out-groups, this explains situations of discrimination and prejudice toward out-group members.

• People however do help in-groups and out-groups but for different reasons

• People might help their in-group because they feel more empathy for those in need (the more empathy you feel the more likely you are to help)

• People often help out people in the out-group when there is something in it for them, making them feel good about themselves or making a positive impression on others

• Other cultures may place an emphasis on not seeking recognition for acts of kindness, praise might violate the social norm of staying modest

Does Religion Influence Prosocial Behaviour?

Yes, religious people are more likely to exhibit prosocial behaviour and acts. An important feature of religion is that it bind people together and creates strong social bonds. An important qualification though is that the person in need is also religious and shares their beliefs, this increases the likelihood of being helped. 

How Does Mood Influence Prosocial Behaviour

People are more likely to help when they are in a positive or negative mood compared to when their mood is more neutral.

• Positive mood because you what to keep your good mood going, creating more positive emotions after doing a good deed

• Negative moods because you are motivated to get out of the bad mood, by doing something good you will then feel better.

• Feeling guilty also increases helping because of the idea that doing a good deed will cancel out a bad deed. It creates a balance which helps the person feel better.

Urban-Overload Hypothesis

The theory that because people living in cities are constantly being bombarded with stimulation, they keep to themselves to avoid being overloaded by it.

Bystander Effect

The finding that the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely it is that any one of them will help. 

Bystander Intervention Model

Step 1. Noticing an event

Step 2. Interpret the event as an emergency

Step 3. Assuming responsibility

Step 4. Knowing how to help

Step 5. Deciding to Implement the help

Noticing an Event

The more people around the less likely you are to notice something is wrong. - Urban-Overload Hypothesis

• People that are busy and are in a rush may not notice things happening around them

Interpreting the Event as an Emergency

During ambiguous situations, people may look around to see what other people are thinking and if they interpret it as an emergency or not.

Pluralistic Ignorance

The phenomenon whereby bystanders assume that nothing is wrong in an emergency because no one else looks concerned. 

• You think your attitudes are different than others when they are actually the same, in turn, inhibiting your reactions

• To relieve this: talk to others about it, communication is key 

Assuming Responsibility

Diffusion of responsibility, thinking that others can help. Instead, a person should take charge and lead people rather than wait for someone else to do it.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Each bystander’s sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses to an emergency or crisis increases.

Knowing How to Help

Asking yourself if you are capable of helping. If a person does not know something that might be required like CPR training, they may be less likely to try to help. 

Deciding to Implement the Help

Asking if helping will be costly, do you have time, the energy to help or will you look dumb for trying to help. Weighing the rewards and costs associated with helping.

What to do in Emergency Situations to Increase Helping?

• Make it obvious that help is needed

• Single someone out (“You in the blue shirt…”)

• Telling people what they need to do (Assigning them a task)

Does True Altruism Exist? - Can Prosocial Behaviour Be Selfless

Egoistic Side

• When taking someone perspective, you merge into the other person. You see yourself in that person so helping them is more like helping yourself 

• What is more important than empathy is the oneness a person feels, the closer you are to that person, the more oneness you feel, the more self-other merging happens

Altruistic Side

• Empathy is what matters most

• Measuring objective vs. subjective feelings along with oneness

• Empathy does not affect “oneness” 

• Study only included strangers and did not account for people you felt closer to

Still debated today