PSYC 101: Test 1 study guide (1/4) with SI add-ons

random sample

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

dependent variable

in an experiment, the variable where an outcome is measured due to the change of another variable

independent variable

the factor manipulated in an experiment to produce a change; variable whose effect (on another variable) is being studied

blind procedure

procedure where the subjects of an experiment don’t know whether they are in the control or experimental group (receiving placebo vs. treatment)

double blind procedure

procedure where both the researchers and the subjects of an experiment don’t know whether the subjects are in the control or experimental group (receiving the placebo vs. treatment)

control group

the group that is not exposed to the treatment and is observed to provide a standard for comparison for the group experiencing treatment

experimental group

the group that is receiving the treatment (independent variable)

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.

• ex: human intelligence can be defined as what an intelligence (IQ) test measures

random selection vs. random assignment

• random selection: random sampling/a way of selecting members of a population in a study’s sample

• random assignment: a way of sorting a study’s sample into control and experimental groupings

randomize/randomization

the process of assigning participants to treatment and control groups, assuming that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group.

psychodynamic theories

theorieS (Ok!! Multiple!!) that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences. Based on the ideas that:

1. All behavior has an underlying cause

2. Underlying causes for behavior are rooting in unconscious processes and unresolved past conflicts

3. Childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality

These are a collection of theories UNDER psychoanalytic theory.

neuroscientific/biological psychology

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity and structure linked with cognition, focusing on memory, perception, thinking and language.

cognitive psychology

the study of mental processes, such as what occurs when we perceive, learn, remember, communicate, and solve problems

behavioral/learning psychology

 Learning perspective; learning through conditioning, rewards, models & imitation.

sociocultural psychology

A view of behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits & their social context.

humanistic psychology

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential

evolutionary psychology

the study of evolution on the behavior of the mind, using principles of natural selection

Gestalt psychology

Emphasizes the tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes, meaning “form” or “an organized whole.”

Wilhelm Wundt

• Physician who set up the first psychology lab

• encouraged introspection—looking inside (e.g., how do you feel when you watch a sunset?)

• Student Edward Bradford Titchener argued that the mind could be broken down into structures like elements could

Sigmund Freud

• one of the very first thinkers of psychoanalytic/psychodynamic theory

• proposed the idea of there being a subconscious, something “under” a person that cannot be explicitly interacted with

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

• explored classical conditioning and the “conditioned reflex”: how we link two or more stimuli together

• e.g. _____’s Dogs—how they associated a sound stimuli with food and began to salivate just at the sound

• PHYSIOLOGIST, not psychologist!

William James

• Wrote 1st textbook in psychology: principles to psychology

• proposed functionalism; wanted to consider the function of consciousness and thought thinking was adaptive due to evolution.

• established Harvard’s psychology department

John B. Watson

Proposed behaviorism. He emphasized the external behavior of people and their reactions on given situations, rather than the internal mental state of those people. Categorized behavior into four distinct types.

Survey

• Typically a questionnaire where people report their own CONSCIOUSLY held feelings and behavior

• Limitation: people may lie, and asking questions that don’t provoke some sort of knee-jerk response or that aren’t leading are tricky

Naturalistic observation

• where researchers watch behavior in a natural environment without variable manipulation

• good at describing behavior, but limited in explaining it (as variables cannot be manipulated)

• limitation: subjects may behave differently when they learn they are being watched

Case studies

• an in-depth look at one individual

• cannot be replicated; run the risk of overgeneralization

experimental studies

studies where psychologists manipulate an independent variable (such as a drug) to observe effects on a dependent variable (such as psychosis), keeping all other variables constant.

correlational studies

studies that assess the association between two factors, showing how well one predicts another

Explain why correlation does not prove causation, with relevant examples.

• Correlations predict only the possibility of cause-and-effect relationships, but they cannot prove them.

• For example, if research shows a positive correlation between high levels of sexual promiscuity with low socioeconomic status, one may incorrectly assume that having a low income causes sexual promiscuity, when in fact the rise of sexual promiscuity may be more directly linked to education, cultural norms and support systems which are then tied to income.

APA guidelines for doing research with humans and animals (4)

1. They must have a clear and specific purpose

2. They must care for and house animals in a humane way

3. They must acquire animal subjects legally. Animals must be purchased from accredited companies

4. They must design experimental procedures that employ the least amount of suffering feasible

CALS - Caring Animals Legally Suffer Least

• Caring: Clear and specific purpose

• Animals: Humane care and housing

• Legally: Acquire animals legally from accredited sources

• Suffer: Least amount of suffering feasible

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

• administer and interpret tests

• provide counseling and therapy

• undergo licensing exams

experimental psychology

A field of psychology that uses scientific methods to study human and animal behavior. Study sleep, sensation, memory, cognition, perception etc.

social psychology

branch of psychology that deals with social interactions, including their origins and their effects on the individual.

forensic psychology

the application of psychology to legal issues, using scientific knowledge and methods to answer questions in criminal, civil, and other judicial proceedings

developmental psychology

the study of psychology focusing on human growth, changes and adaptation throughout their lives.

psychologist vs. psychiatrist

• psychiatrist: a medical doctor who can prescribe medication. Have an MD. Focus on the treatment of mental disorders through medication but can also provide general medical care. More concerned with severe disorders like severe depression/anxiety, schizophrenia, bipolar.

• Psychologist: typically hold doctoral degrees (PhD) and do not attend medical school. Use non-medical interventions such as talk therapy, CBT, and mindfulness to mitigate stressors and mild mental health concerns.

structuralism

• early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to try and reveal the structure of the human mind

• relied so much on introspection it became too subjective

functionalism

• an early school of thought exploring how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable organisms to adapt, survive and flourish

• Why we do what we do, the “function” of behavior—proposed by psychologist William James and influenced by the ideas of charles darwin

Free association

In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing. Encouraged by Sigmund Freud.

psychoanalytic theory

• Freud’s theory of personality that contributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts

• Freud believed a patient’s free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the analyst’s interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.

what is the difference between psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theory?

Psychoanalytic theory is the umbrella, psychodynamic theories are a collection of theories stemming from Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.

B.F. Skinner

• studied reinforcement (positive and negative)

• created a theory of learning: a person is first exposed to a stimulus, which elicits a response, and the response is reinforced (stimulus, response, reinforcement)

Hindsight bias

• the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

• The “I knew it all along” phenomenon

Overconfidence

The tendency for people to think they know more than they actually do.

Perceiving order in random events

humans are wired to make sense of an unpredictable world to relieve stress, such as seeing meaning in a “streak” of heads when flipping a coin

operationalizing

coming up with a concept to test, and thus figuring out how that concept is measurable and quantifiable (think “Phi” from the controversial IIT as a way to measure consciousness).

sampling bias

some members are more likely to be selected than others, so the sample is not representative of the population sways/skews results of a study

Confounding variables

outside factors that may skew the results of a given study

cognitive behavior

thinking - thoughts, opinions, dreams, reasoning, etc.

behavioral genetic psychology

scientific field that studies how genes and the environment affect behavior in humans and other animals

epigenetics

how trauma in a previous generation affects genes and thereby the next generation

biopsychosocial approach

bio = biological factors

psycho = psychological factors

social = social factors

random selection

AKA random sampling, a way of selecting members of a population in a study’s sample