An introduction to language

What is natural language?

a communication system utilizing arbitrary signs to represent concepts

Arbitrary signs

• spoken or written

• The relationship between a word and its meaning is historical and conventional rather than transparent. For example, the sound "apple" has no inherent connection to the fruit; other languages use different signs (e.g., "manzana" in Spanish) for the same referent.

Non arbitrary signs

These possess an intrinsic link between form and meaning

Examples of non arbitrary signs

• Vocalisations: Shouting conveys danger or surprise naturally.

• Onomatopoeia: Sounds that mimic the noise of their referents.

• Visual Symbols: Motorway signs where the image directly represents the instruction.

Rule governed communication

Communication requires a shared system of implicit rules established by a community. These rules determine the systematic mapping of words to the world, such as syntax

Syntax

the order of words

Semanticity

Language is inherently meaningful and conveys facts or information.

Displacement as a defining feature

The ability to communicate about things not present in current time or space.

Cultural transmission

Language is learned within a community and must be easily mastered by children.

Discreteness

Linguistic units (sounds, words) are perceived as distinct entities rather than a continuous blur

Productivity

The capacity to create new words (e.g., "television") and infinite new meanings.

Recursion

The ability to expand messages by re-applying rules to their own output (e.g., "the man chasing the dog that chased the cat...").

Duality of Patterning

A small set of meaningless sounds (level 1) are combined to form meaningful words (level 2), which then combine into sentences.

What does language processing involve?

distinct cognitive levels, often highlighted by specific impairments resulting from brain damage or developmental issues.

Comprehension

involves mapping sounds to stored mental meanings

What are the three processes of comprehension?

1. Sound/Word Recognition.

2. Meaning Access

3. Message Integration

Meaning access

Retrieves the word's reference in SD individuals may hear words like "leopard" or "lion" but fail to understand the relationship between them.

Message integration

Establishing the relationships between words.

What 2 processes does speech production involve?

1. Retrieval

2. Sequencing/planning

Retrieval

Accessing words from memory. The "tip of the tongue" phenomenon is a common retrieval lapse.

Sequencing/Planning

Putting words together using fine-grained motor planning.

What is aphasia?

is a language impairment caused by brain damage

What can aphasia effect?

the retrieval of words, the ability to sequence them correctly, and the understanding of word relationships

What is developmental verbal aphasia?

specifically impacts the motor planning required for speech.

What’s the nativist argument (Chomsky)

posits that children possess innate knowledge of linguistic structure, similar to the philosophical concept of "recollection" in Plato’s dialogues.

What are the 2 theoretical frameworks of language?

1. The Nativist Argument (Chomsky)

2. Functionalist/learned based view

What are the 3 parts of the nativist argument?

1. Universal grammar

2. Generalisation

3. Universal principles

Universal grammar

An innately understood system that constrains the structural patterns of all human languages.

Generalization

Children home in on correct patterns from a vast array of logical possibilities, suggesting they rule out certain structures from the start.

Universal principles

While languages vary, they are constrained by universal tendencies that are genetically "prepackaged."

What’s the challenge to nativism?

language-specific patterns may not be purely genetic

What are 4 challenges to the nativist perspective?

1. Input quality

2. general cognition

3. functional constraints

4. the arrow analogy

input quality

Nativists may underestimate the quality of linguistic input and a child's ability to learn from it.

general cognition

Some "language-specific" knowledge may actually be rooted in general perception or cognition.

functional constraints

Language patterns may emerge because they solve communicative problems efficiently.

the arrow analogy

Similarities in languages may be like similarities in arrows (points at the front, stabilizers at the back). Arrows were invented independently by different groups but look similar because they solve the same functional problem.

Animal learning biases

James Gould and Peter Marler noted that animals possess "useful prejudices. Pigeons associate sound with danger but ignore it when seeking food, favoring color instead.

Primate syntax

Human-reared apes can combine signs in regular orders and distinguish some meanings based on combinations. However, they cannot reach the human level of complexity or the potentially infinite recursive power of human syntax.

Biological critical period

Language must be developed before puberty. Neglect or trauma that prevents development during this window results in a permanent inability to fully master language.