Psychology Quiz 2

need vs. drive

A need is a state of deprivation or deficiency. A drive is a state of bodily tension such as hunger or thirst that arises from an unmet needs.

intrinsic motivation

the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some separable consequence.

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

physiological arousal determines the strength of the emotion, while cognitive appraisal identifies the emotion label.

cognitive learning

Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation.

convergent thinking

focuses on reaching one well-defined solution to a problem

Long-term memory

unlimited storage information to be maintained for long periods, even for life.

Memory

 the faculty of encoding, storing, and retrieving information 

disinhibition

the reappearance of a conditioned response once the response has been made extinct. Once extinction has occurred, like in the example that the dog no longer salivates in response to Pavlov's sound, the dog is introduced to a new stimulus.

positive reinforcement

 the introduction of a desirable or pleasant stimulus after a behavior. The desirable stimulus reinforces the behavior, making it more likely that the behavior will reoccur.

Conditioned response

the response made by a person or animal after learning to associate an experience with a neutral or arbitrary stimulus. cat running for food when a bell rings

Attention

enables information to move from sensory memory into short-term memory

classical conditioning

Occurs by pairing a stimulus that does not produce a reflexive response with a stimulus that does elicit a reflexive response.

neutral

A stimulus that becomes conditioned through the process of classical conditioning.

acquisition

The period during which a response is reinforced.

higher-order conditioning

The use of a conditioned stimulus as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.

stimulus generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus.

extinction

Weakening of a learned response by repeatedly presenting the CS without the US; a result from terminating reinforcement.

conditioned emotional response

Feeling some positive or negative emotion, such as happiness, fear, or anxiety, when experiencing a stimulus that initially accompanied a pleasant or painful event.

operant conditioning

1What is occurring in research that employs a Skinner box.

response-contingent

Reinforcement that is provided only after the subject has an appropriate reaction to the stimulus.

response chain

A series of actions that eventually lead to reinforcement.

shaping

Reinforcement of increasingly close approximations of the desired response.

negative punishment

Response cost, or removing something unpleasant following the learner's desired response.

stimulus control

Situation in which stimuli influence when and where a response is made.

stimulus discrimination

Responding when rewarding stimuli are present and not responding when they are not present.

continuous reinforcer

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

fixed ratio schedule

Used by a researcher to obtain the highest rate of correct responses from a subject.

variable interval schedule

Schedule of reinforcement that produces slow, steady response rates.

partial reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; for example, an employee who gets paid a set amount of money for every 10 boxes stacked.

avoidance learning

Process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present.

consequence

In the context of learning and conditioning, what punishment is considered to be.

escape learning

Learning to make a response to end an aversive stimulus.

latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

cognitive map

Represents one's environment.

insight and understanding

Characteristics of discovery learning.

observational learning

Learning by observing others; also called social learning.

model

Serves as the critical factor in all types of observational learning.

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

neutral stimulus

The sound of a bell before conditioning.

response contingent

Reinforcement that occurs only after a response.

social reinforcer

Learned desire to receive approval from others.

covert sensitization

Uses aversive imagery to reduce the occurrence of an undesired behavior.

conditioned stimulus

The sound of a bell after conditioning.

law of effect

The probability of a response being altered by the effect that it has had.

token economy

An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.

systematic desensitization

A type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli.

vicarious conditioning

Classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person.

positive punishment

Addition of something unpleasant.

negative reinforcer

An unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future.

desensitization

Tendency over time to show weaker emotional responses to emotional stimuli.

network model of memory.

the concept that long-term memory is made up of a series of knowledge representations that are connected or linked together. The strength of the connections is determined by experience factors, such as repetition and associations

Redintegration

Hearing an old song that triggers a memory, which in turn triggers further associated memories; most dependent on the network model of memory.

Episodic memory

Part of declarative memory stores an "autobiographical" record of personal experiences.

Procedural memory

Where the memory of how to ride a bike would be stored.

implicit memory

a form of long-term memory that doesn't require any conscious retrieval. automatic memory,

Encoding

Transforming information for retention in memory.

Flashbulb memories

Defining characteristic is the person's confidence in their accuracy and Emotion lies at the core of flashbulb memories.

Limbic

System that is triggered when information that forms a flashbulb memory becomes intensely consolidated.

Explicit memory

Stored information that is consciously retrieved.

Ebbinghaus' research on forgetting

It shows that forgetting is rapid at first and is followed by a slow decline unless we take action to keep memory there.

Telling a friend about the time you went hang gliding in the Alps would be classified as a ________ memory.

explicit, episodic

Sensory memory

Type of memory in which information has the briefest life span.

Encoding failure

Happens when a memory for the information presented is not formed.

Storage failure

Disuse explains why some unused memories fade, whereas others are carried for life.

Memory traces

From a neurological perspective, created by storage of information in long-term memory.

Short-term memory

Where maintenance rehearsal occurs, also called working memory

Spaced practice

Behavior demonstrated when you know all the bones for your anatomy exam, but keep reciting them to yourself when driving or going for a run.

The hippocampus

Plays a key role in transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory.

Retrieval failure

Lack of appropriate cues that lead to forgetting.

Consolidation

The process of forming relatively permanent memories.

State-dependent learning

The emotional condition that exists when obtaining information can be a strong cue for later retrieval.

Eidetic imagery

the ability to retain a "projected" mental picture long enough to use it as a source of information

Eidetic

a rare form of memory in which initial iconic information lasts longer than the usual few seconds

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to retrieve memories of events that occurred before an injury or trauma.

Retro = old so the memories from the past are forgotten

Anterograde amnesia

a type of memory loss that occurs when you can't form new memories.

Repression

Unconsciously burying unpleasant memories.

Retroactive interference

The tendency for new learning to inhibit retrieval of old learning.

Working memory / short term memory

Most active when you are trying to figure out what the time and date will be when you plan a flight across 10 time zones.

Semantic memory

General knowledge.

Episodic memory

Memory for one's personal past experiences.

Mnemonic devices

"Every good boy deserves fudge" to help remember the notes of a musical staff.

Mental imagery

A picture created by the imagination with no visual stimulus required. Carl is getting ready for a trip to Mexico and practicing his Spanish. In order to remember the Spanish word cerveza for beer, he creates a connection between the words by thinking about a large glass of beer on a "serving" tray with a slice of "pizza" beside it.

Maintenance rehearsal

Practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in one's head in order to maintain it in short-term memory.

Elaborative processing

A way to remember information better that involves rehearsing by looking for connections to existing knowledge. creates the most meaningful and lasting memory

retrograde amnesia

amnesia where you can't recall memories that were formed before the event that caused the amnesia.

Chunking

Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory.

Rote learning

An ineffective approach to forming stable memories because the information that is stored lacks meaning.

Multimedia principle.

The idea that people process words and mental images together better than they do words alone.

Suggestion

Can lead to false memories caused by hypnosis.

Network model

Conceptualizes memory as an organized system of linked information.

Associations

Patterns emphasized in the network model concept of memory structure.

Cognitive interviewing

The use of various cues and strategies to improve the memory of eyewitnesses.

Declarative memory

Memory of knowledge that can be called forth consciously as needed.

Implicit

Memory associated with an action you perform frequently without thinking, as if on "autopilot".

Partial memory

Comprises a déjà vu experience.

Cues

Serves as the basis for priming implicit memories.

Recall

Retrieval of information with a minimum of external cues.

Serial position effect

Tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

Recognition

Ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact.