American Government: Democracy, Federalism, Civil Rights & Court Cases

What is democracy?

Rule by the people.

What is representative democracy?

Citizens elect officials who make policy on their behalf.

What is the difference between direct and indirect democracy?

In direct democracy, citizens vote on laws directly; in indirect democracy, they elect representatives.

What is popular sovereignty?

The principle that government power comes from the people.

What is majority rule?

The principle that the majority's decision should prevail.

What are minority rights?

The rights held by a small number of people in a society.

What is elitism?

Political power concentrates in the hands of a small, wealthy, or influential elite.

What is pluralism?

Politics is competition among many interest groups; power is dispersed.

What was the significance of Shay's Rebellion?

It showed weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and spurred calls for a stronger national government.

What did the Articles of Confederation establish?

A weak national government with most power given to the states.

What is the Three-fifths Compromise?

For representation and taxation, enslaved people counted as 3/5 of a person.

What is the Supremacy Clause?

Federal law is supreme over state laws.

What does the Commerce Clause allow?

Congress can regulate interstate commerce.

What is the Full Faith & Credit Clause?

States must respect public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of other states.

What does the 10th Amendment state?

Powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states or the people.

What are concurrent powers?

Powers shared by state and federal governments, such as taxation.

What are the Federalist Papers?

Essays arguing for the ratification of the Constitution.

What did Federalists believe?

They favored a stronger central government.

What did Anti-Federalists advocate for?

They wanted stronger state power and a bill of rights.

What is the Madisonian model?

Structures to limit majority tyranny through separation of powers and checks and balances.

What does Federalist No. 10 address?

The control of factions and dangers of factionalism.

What was one argument of the Anti-Federalists?

A strong national government could become tyrannical; we need a Bill of Rights.

What does the Necessary and Proper Clause allow Congress to do?

Make laws needed to execute its enumerated powers.

What was the outcome of McCulloch v. Maryland?

Congress may use implied powers and states may not tax federal institutions.

Where is the Necessary and Proper Clause found?

Article I, Section 8.

What is the Bill of Rights?

The first 10 Amendments guaranteeing individual liberties.

What is selective incorporation?

The process by which the Supreme Court has applied most Bill of Rights protections to states via the 14th Amendment's Due Process Clause.

What protections do the rights of the criminally accused include?

Search & seizure (4th), self-incrimination (5th), counsel (6th), cruel & unusual punishment (8th).

What does selective incorporation mean?

Rights in the Bill of Rights are gradually applied to states via the 14th Amendment.

What do Miranda warnings protect against?

Self-incrimination and right to counsel during custodial interrogation.

What is the main difference between civil liberties and civil rights?

Civil liberties are protections from government, while civil rights ensure equal treatment.

What is the significance of Brown v. Board of Education?

It established that segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.

What did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 accomplish?

It banned discrimination in public accommodations and employment.

What are Black Codes and Jim Crow laws?

Laws enforcing racial segregation after Reconstruction.

What was the ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson?

It allowed 'separate but equal' as constitutional.

What did the Voting Rights Act of 1965 outlaw?

Discriminatory voting practices.

What is affirmative action?

Policies to remedy past discrimination and promote diversity.

What is dual federalism?

A clear distinction between state and federal responsibilities.

What is cooperative federalism?

National and state governments share responsibilities.

What is New Federalism?

Attempts to return power to the states.

What is a block grant?

Funds states can spend for broader policy purposes.

What is an advantage of federalism?

Ability to experiment with state policy innovation.

What is prior restraint?

Government censorship prior to publication.

What is the Lemon test?

A test used to evaluate establishment clause cases.

What is the difference between the free exercise clause and the establishment clause?

The free exercise clause protects religious practices, while the establishment clause prohibits government from establishing a religion.

When can the government limit speech under the 'imminent lawless action' standard?

When the speech is likely to incite immediate violence or lawless action.

What are voter turnout patterns influenced by?

SES, education, age.

What did the Voting Rights Act of 1965 do?

Removed barriers to minority voting, such as literacy tests.

What is apportionment?

Allocation of House seats by population.

What is reapportionment?

Redistribution of House seats after the census.

What is redistricting?

Drawing district lines.

What is gerrymandering?

Drawing district lines to advantage one party.

What advantages do incumbents have?

Name recognition, fundraising, constituency services.

What do PACs do?

Collect donations for candidates.

What can Super PACs do?

Raise and spend unlimited money independently on political advertising.

What is the difference between safe districts and swing districts?

Safe districts are likely to be won by one party, while swing districts can be won by either party.

What is packing in gerrymandering?

Consolidating opposition voters into a few districts.

What is cracking in gerrymandering?

Diluting opposition votes across many districts.

What is the significance of FECA and Buckley v. Valeo?

They relate to money and speech in campaign finance.

What is the principle established by Citizens United?

Corporate independent expenditures are protected as free speech.

What does agenda setting by the media mean?

Media influences what issues the public considers important.

What do lobbyists typically do?

Provide information and expertise to legislators.

What is the role of committees in the legislative process?

Key legislative work occurs in committees, shaping bills and exercising oversight.

What is a delegate in terms of representation?

A legislator who votes according to constituents' wishes.

What is a trustee in terms of representation?

A legislator who uses their own judgment to make decisions.

What is a politico in terms of representation?

A legislator who mixes the delegate and trustee models.

What is the process for how a bill becomes a law?

Introduction → committee → markup → floor vote → other chamber → conference committee → President (sign/veto) → override with 2/3.

What are enumerated powers of Congress?

Taxing, spending, declaring war, regulating commerce.

What is the difference between authorization and appropriation?

Authorization establishes a program, while appropriation provides funding.

What is an executive order?

A directive from the president with the force of law.

What is an executive agreement?

A pact with another nation that does not require Senate consent.

What is the main argument of Neustadt regarding presidential power?

Presidential power is the power to persuade.

What is judicial review?

The power of courts to declare laws unconstitutional.

What case established judicial review?

Marbury v. Madison.

What is a writ of certiorari?

An order by a higher court to review a lower court's decision.

What is the principle of stare decisis?

The legal principle of determining points in litigation according to precedent.

What are amicus curiae briefs?

Legal documents arguing positions from outside parties, meaning 'friend of the court.'

What is the difference between judicial restraint and judicial activism?

Restraint is a narrow interpretation of law, while activism suggests courts should shape policy.

What is Marbury v. Madison known for?

Establishing the principle of judicial review.

What does a petitioner file for a writ of certiorari to do?

Ask the Supreme Court to hear their case.

What is public policy?

Government actions to address public problems.

What are the three types of public policy?

Distributive, Regulatory, and Redistributive.

What is an example of a redistributive policy?

Welfare or progressive taxation.

What is the primary institution for U.S. monetary policy?

The Federal Reserve.

What defines a progressive tax?

Higher income leads to a higher tax rate.

What is the difference between Medicare and Medicaid?

Medicare is for those 65 and older, while Medicaid is a means-tested program for low-income individuals.

What are the goals of foreign policy?

Security, economic prosperity, promoting values, and international stability.

What is an instrument of foreign policy that limits trade?

Sanctions.

Who has the power to ratify treaties?

The Senate with a two-thirds majority.

What is political socialization?

The process through which people form political values and beliefs.

What is the most influential agent of political socialization for young children?

Family.

What political ideology emphasizes limited government and individual liberty?

Conservatism or libertarianism.