Midterm Ap Psych

audition

the sense or act of hearing

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart); splits into sympathetic and parasympathetic

broca’s area

a region in the frontal lobe (left hem) that is essential in physical speech production

Control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

cones

receptors that are connected near the center of the retina

• work in well-lit conditions

• detect fine detail and color sensations

correlation

measure of the extent to which two factors vary together (how well one predicts the other)

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to participants

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that changes based on manipulation of the IV

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

frontal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead that enables

• linguistic processing

• muscle movements

• higher order thinking

• exectuive functioning

hypothalamus

a limbic system neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it governs the endocrine system and is in charge of survival functions (hunger, thirst, sexual urges, body temp)

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

evaluates ethics, risks, and benefits of an experiment so that it fits within government standards

Limbic system

neural system located mosty in the forebrain (below cerebral hemispheres) that includes

• amygdala

• hypothalamus

• hippcocampus

• thalamus

• pituitary gland

Mean

average, found by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

negative correlation

inverse relationship; one increases as one decreases

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

• bind to receptor sites and determine whether the neuron will generate a action potential

opponent-processing theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision

• cells are stimulated and inhibited by the color combos

Parasympathetic nervous system

division of the autonomic nervous system in charge of rest and digest (calming)

Percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, or certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response

psychoactive drugs

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perception and moods

Quantitative research

a research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data

random assigment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials can’t occur until the axon returns to its resting state

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also know as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active

reticular formation

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement

• necessary for peripheral and twilight vision when cones don’t respond

sleep apnea

sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakening

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that a result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of physical energy, such as sensory information, into neural impulses the brain can interpret

Algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

• opposite of heuristics

Aptitude test

test designed to predict a person’s future performance

• aptitude = ability to learn

Availability heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

• presume what comes to mind fastest is more common

closure

Gestalt principle of perception where the brain fills in missin gaps to perceive incomplete figures as whole

Confirmation bias

tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Crystalized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

depth perception

ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Distributed practice

learning strategy that includes spreading out study session over timer with breaks rather than cramming

Divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

Emotional intelligence

ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events

• one of two conscious memroy systems (other is semantic)

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Flynn effect

the rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures

Functional fixedness

cognitive bias that makes people only see objects in their usual or intended function, preventing them from being creative

G factor (general intelligence)

according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

growth mindset

a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed

mental age

measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

method of loci

mnemonic devide where you use spatial memory to recall lists by associating each item with a location

Perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

proactive interference

the forward acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

• quick and easy way to sort items into categories

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person indentifies items previously learned (multiple choice)

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results

selective attention

focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Serial position effect

tendency to recall best the last in a list initially (recency effect) and then the first items in a list (primacy effect)

Standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

Stanford-Binet IQ test

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford) of Binet’s original intelligence test

Validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it’s supposed to

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; they contain verbal and performance subtests

Working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memroy; conscious, active processing of both incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory

Accommodation

1. in sensation and perception, process by which eye’s lens changes shape to focus images on the retina

2. in developmental psych, adapting our current schemuas to incorporate new information

Adolescence

transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to intelligence

Authoritative parenting

balanced style where parents are demanding and responsive

Basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

conservation

principle which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning

• properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the form of the objects

Critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development

Gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and women

Grammar

a system of rules in language that enables us to communicate with and understand others

heredity

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

Identity formation

adolescent process of developing and solidifying a unique sense of selfby trying different things

Industry-inferiority

4th stage in Erikson’s psychosocial development theory where children age 6-12 try to be productive (to not feel inferior)

Intimacy-isolation

6th stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development where we learn to share who we are with others without losing your identity

Longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time

linguistic determinism

Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think

Morpheme

smallest unit that holds meaning

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Permissive parenting

parenting style with low demandingess but high responsiveness

Phonemes

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

Piaget’s cognitive development theory

• sensorimotor (birth-2yrs)

  • object permanence and learn world through senses

• preoperational (2 to 7)

  • language development, egocentrism, animism, lack conservation

• concrete operational

  • logical thinking, conservation, math, reversibility

• formal operational

  • abstract reasoning

Primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovoaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

Zone of proximal development

What Vygotsky referred to as the area between what a child has already learned and can do indepently and what they need help with

syntax

rules of how words are rearranged into meaningful sentences

Classical conditioning

type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli so that one comes to elicit behavior in anticipation of another

• Pavlov

neutral stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned stimulus

a stimulus that naturally triggers an unconditioned response

unconditioned response

an unlearned, naturally occurring response to a UCS

conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

conditioned stimulus

an originally neutral stiumulus that, after association with an UCS, comes to trigger a CR

generalization

the tendency for stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

higher order conditioning

procedure in which the conditioned stimulus is one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus

discrimination

1. classical: the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned or reinforced stimulus and other stimuli that have not been associated with a conditioned stimulus

fixed interval schedule

operant conditioning schedule that reinforces a response only after a specificied time has elapsed